Background
Methods
Study design and participants
Anthropometric parameters, biochemical analysis, and blood pressure
Echocardiography
Speckle-tracking imaging
Measurement of the epicardial adipose tissue thickness
Measurement of exercise capacity and hemodynamic response
Measurement of physical activity
Diagnosis of sarcopenia
Statistical analysis
Results
Selection of study participants
Characteristics | Control (n = 50) | HFpEF without T2DM (n = 48) | HFpEF with T2DM (n = 51) | P-value |
---|---|---|---|---|
HFA-PEFF score | 5 (IQR, 5–6)* | 5 (IQR, 5–6)* | < 0.001 | |
H2FPEF score | 6 (IQR, 4–7)* | 6 (IQR, 4–7)* | < 0.001 | |
NYHA functional classification | ||||
Class II | 0 | 58 | 45 | 0.188 |
Class III | 0 | 42 | 55 | 0.188 |
Comorbidities | ||||
Old myocardial infarction (%) | 0 | 19 | 35 | 0.065 |
Atrial fibrillation (%) | 0 | 65 | 55 | 0.443 |
Anemia (%) | 6 | 13* | 24*, † | 0.038 |
Hypertension (%) | 22 | 63* | 73* | < 0.001 |
Dyslipidemia (%) | 58 | 52 | 55 | 0.841 |
Obesity (%) | 2 | 15* | 2 | 0.011 |
Overweight (%) | 62 | 48 | 65 | 0.195 |
Sarcopenia (%) | 4 | 4 | 20*, † | 0.009 |
Diabetic duration (years) | 0 | 0 | 9.3 (IQR, 8.8–9.7)*, † | < 0.001 |
Age (years) | 75 (IQR, 72–78) | 74 (IQR, 70–78) | 74 (IQR, 72–77) | 0.804 |
Male (%) | 50 | 48 | 49 | 0.979 |
Anthropometric parameters | ||||
Height (cm) | 163 (IQR, 159–169) | 163 (IQR, 154–171) | 162 (IQR, 155–169) | 0.515 |
Weight (kg) | 70 (IQR, 66–72) | 69 (IQR, 63–74) | 66 (IQR, 62–73) | 0.380 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 26.1 ± 1.9 | 26.3 ± 3.0 | 25.9 ± 2.1 | 0.738 |
Body surface area (m2) | 1.75 ± 0.11 | 1.75 ± 0.15 | 1.72 ± 0.14 | 0.442 |
Waist circumference (cm) | 103 (IQR, 99–105) | 116 (IQR, 113–125)* | 116 (IQR, 112–123)* | < 0.001 |
Physical activity | ||||
Steps (steps/days) | 7603 (IQR, 6,602–8,430) | 4695 (IQR, 3,774–5,276)* | 4977 (IQR, 4,648–5,911)* | < 0.001 |
Movement related to calorie consumption (kcal/days) | 294 (IQR, 253–338) | 180 (IQR, 149–209)* | 201 (IQR, 165–230)* | < 0.001 |
Components of sarcopenia | ||||
Appendicular skeletal muscle index (kg/m2) | 7.3 ± 0.9 | 7.1 ± 0.8 | 6.9 ± 0.9* | 0.038 |
Hand grip (kg) | 26.4 (IQR, 20.5–29.5) | 22.4 (IQR, 19.7–28.8) | 21.7 (IQR, 19.9–25.1)* | 0.007 |
Sit to stand-5 (s) | 7.2 (IQR, 6.8–7.9) | 8.9 (IQR, 8.2–9.5)* | 8.8 (IQR, 8.3–10.2)* | < 0.001 |
Preference and medication | ||||
Smoker (%) | 24 | 27 | 24 | 0.907 |
Angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor (%) | 0 | 60* | 69* | < 0.001 |
Angiotensin II Receptor Blocker (%) | 4 | 46* | 59* | < 0.001 |
β blocker (%) | 0 | 60* | 65* | < 0.001 |
Calcium-channel blocker (%) | 0 | 38* | 57* | < 0.001 |
Diuretic (%) | 0 | 6 | 4 | 0.220 |
Statin (%) | 34 | 98* | 84* | < 0.001 |
Fibrate (%) | 10 | 0 | 4 | 0.062 |
Ezetimibe (%) | 22 | 40* | 76* | < 0.001 |
Biguanide (%) | 0 | 0 | 78*, † | < 0.001 |
Sulphonylurea (%) | 0 | 0 | 69*, † | < 0.001 |
α-glucosidase inhibitor (%) | 0 | 0 | 20*, † | < 0.001 |
Sodium glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor (%) | 0 | 0 | 25*, † | < 0.001 |
Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor (%) | 0 | 0 | 22*, † | < 0.001 |
Biochemical analysis and blood pressure | ||||
Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) | 224 (IQR, 211–232) | 226 (IQR, 215–232) | 220 (IQR, 213–229) | 0.741 |
Low–density lipoprotein cholesterol (mg/dL) | 124 (IQR, 117–131) | 142 (IQR, 134–151)* | 140 (IQR, 133–144)* | < 0.001 |
High–density lipoprotein cholesterol (mg/dL) | 58 (IQR, 54–62) | 51 (IQR, 43–55)* | 51 (IQR, 44–56)* | < 0.001 |
Triglyceride (mg/dL) | 130 (IQR, 117–142) | 152 (IQR, 141–168)* | 152 (IQR, 142–171)* | < 0.001 |
Hemoglobin A1c (%) | 5.6 (IQR, 5.4–5.7) | 5.2 (IQR, 4.9–5.4)* | 9.7 (IQR, 9.1–10.2)*, † | < 0.001 |
Fasting plasma glucose (mg/dL) | 118 (IQR, 102–122) | 98 (IQR, 93–105)* | 159 (IQR, 149–168)*, † | < 0.001 |
HOMA-IR (%) | 1.7 (IQR, 1.6–2.1) | 1.3 (IQR, 1.1–1.5)* | 3.5 (IQR, 3.0–3.8)*, † | < 0.001 |
eGFR at cystatin C (mL/min/1.73m2) | 71 (IQR, 70–78) | 58 (IQR, 55–63)* | 50 (IQR, 47–54)*, † | < 0.001 |
Brain natriuretic peptide (pg/mL) | 18 (IQR, 17–21) | 173 (IQR, 148–209) * | 202 (IQR, 173–219)* | < 0.001 |
Hemoglobin (g/dL) | 14.0 (IQR, 13.4–14.4) | 13.3 (IQR, 12.8–13.8)* | 12.4 (IQR, 12.1–13.1)*, † | < 0.001 |
Systolic Blood Pressure (mmHg) | 126 (IQR, 122–128) | 142 (IQR, 124–148)* | 142 (IQR, 128–148)* | < 0.001 |
Diastolic Blood Pressure (mmHg) | 72 (IQR, 66–75) | 68 (IQR, 66–75) | 66 (IQR, 63–72) | 0.067 |
Clinical characteristics among the three groups
Echocardiography data among the three groups
Characteristics | Control (n = 50) | HFpEF without T2DM (n = 48) | HFpEF with T2DM (n = 51) | P-value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Epicardial adipose tissue thickness (mm) | 5.1 (IQR, 4.3–6.8) | 7.9 (IQR, 7.4–8.3)* | 8.8 (IQR, 8.6–8.9)*, † | < 0.001 |
Interventricular septal thickness at end diastole (mm) | 7.5 (IQR, 6.6–8.2) | 10.2 (IQR, 9.3–10.6)* | 9.8 (IQR, 9.3–10.8)* | < 0.001 |
Posterior wall thickness at end diastole (mm) | 7.6 (IQR, 6.6–8.3) | 10.2 (IQR, 9.4–10.6)* | 9.9 (IQR, 9.3–10.7)* | < 0.001 |
Left ventricular end-diastolic diameter (mm) | 46.5 ± 1.8 | 45.8 ± 2.5 | 46.1 ± 2.6 | 0.304 |
Left ventricular end-systolic diameter (mm) | 27.0 (IQR, 26.1–28.3) | 29.5 (IQR, 28.0–31.4)* | 28.5 (IQR, 26.9–30.6)* | < 0.001 |
Left ventricular end-diastolic volume index (mL/m2) | 57.4 ± 5.9 | 55.5 ± 7.5 | 57.4 ± 8.4 | 0.321 |
Left ventricular end-systolic volume index (mL/m2) | 15.4 (IQR, 13.7–17.9) | 19.6 (IQR, 16.6–22.5)* | 18.5 (IQR, 16.2–22.2)* | < 0.001 |
Left ventricular ejection fraction (%) | 74 (IQR, 67–77) | 64 (IQR, 59–69)* | 66 (IQR, 62–72)* | < 0.001 |
Left atrial ejection fraction (%) | 58 (IQR, 57–61) | 48 (IQR, 45–52)* | 44 (IQR, 42–48)*, † | < 0.001 |
SI (mL/m2) | 41.3 ± 6.3 | 35.7 ± 6.6* | 38.4 ± 7.8 | < 0.001 |
CI (L/min/m2) | 2.9 ± 0.5 | 2.5 ± 0.5* | 2.6 ± 0.6* | < 0.001 |
Left ventricular mass index (g/m2) | 79 (IQR, 70–90) | 116 (IQR, 104–125)* | 119 (IQR, 102–130)* | < 0.001 |
Left atrial volume index (mL/m2) | 29 (IQR, 28–30) | 36 (IQR, 35–40)* | 35 (IQR, 33–38)* | < 0.001 |
Relative wall thickness | 0.32 (IQR, 0.29–0.36) | 0.44 (IQR, 0.42–0.47)* | 0.43 (IQR, 0.41–0.47)* | < 0.001 |
E (cm/s) | 89.4 (IQR, 80.1–91.4) | 57.6 (IQR, 51.9–62.8)* | 59.8 (IQR, 53.1–66.4)* | < 0.001 |
A (cm/sec) | 83.9 (IQR, 80.0–89.2) | 77.9 (IQR, 70.0–82.0)* | 79.2 (IQR, 69.6–88.2)* | < 0.001 |
E/A | 1.02 (IQR, 1.00–1.06) | 0.79 (IQR, 0.71–0.86)* | 0.81 (IQR, 0.70–0.93)* | < 0.001 |
DcT (cm/s) | 195 (IQR, 186–218) | 238 (IQR, 224–268)* | 229 (IQR, 218–249)* | < 0.001 |
Lateral e′ (cm/s) | 10.9 (IQR, 10.7–11.2) | 5.2 (IQR, 3.9–6.2)* | 5.4 (IQR, 4.3–6.1)* | < 0.001 |
Medial e′ (cm/s) | 8.7 (IQR, 6.7–10.0) | 2.8 (IQR, 2.4–3.6)* | 2.8 (IQR, 2.5–3.7)* | < 0.001 |
Mean e′ (cm/s) | 9.7 (IQR, 8.7–10.4) | 3.9 (IQR, 3.2–4.9)* | 4.1 (IQR, 3.4–5.0)* | < 0.001 |
E/e′ (cm/s) | 9.0 (IQR, 8.3–9.6) | 14.6 (IQR, 13.2–16.6)* | 14.7 (IQR, 13.7–16.0)* | < 0.001 |
Peak tricuspid regurgitation velocity (m/s) | 2.2 (IQR, 2.1–2.3) | 2.9 (IQR, 2.6–3.1)* | 2.9 (IQR, 2.8–3.0)* | < 0.001 |
Left ventricular global longitudinal strain (%) | −22.0 (IQR, −18.9– −23.2) | −15.0 (IQR, −16.4– −14.3)* | −14.9 (IQR, −16.1– −13.9)* | < 0.001 |
Left atrial global longitudinal strain (%) | 35.0 (IQR, 32.8–38.8) | 31.9 (IQR, 30.5–33.8)* | 27.6 (IQR, 25.5–30.5)*, † | < 0.001 |
Mitral regurgitation | ||||
Mitral regurgitation volume (mL) | – | 30.6 (IQR, 12.3–31.4) | 30.5 (IQR, 16.4–31.3) | 0.807 |
Effective regurgitant orifice area (cm2) | – | 0.23 (IQR, 0.10–0.24) | 0.22 (IQR, 0.14–0.27) | 0.272 |
Mild (%) | – | 21 | 25 | 0.583 |
Moderate (%) | – | 25 | 29 | 0.622 |
Estimated pulmonary artery systolic pressure (mmHg) | 29.3 (IQR, 27.4–32.6) | 43.1 (IQR, 40.4–48.4)* | 42.0 (IQR, 37.5–48.2)* | < 0.001 |
Presence of concentric remodeling (%) | 0 | 77* | 75* | < 0.001 |
Presence of eccentric hypertrophy (%) | 0 | 73* | 82* | < 0.001 |
Presence of concentric hypertrophy (%) | 0 | 50* | 57* | < 0.001 |
CPET and hemodynamic data
Associations between T2DM and peakVO 2 in patients with HFpEF
Independent variables | Peak oxygen uptake | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R2 | Standard error | Standardized β | 95% confidence interval | Variance Inflation Factor | P-value | ||
0.476 | |||||||
Age | 0.069 | −0.203 | −0.322 | −0.048 | 1.008 | 0.008 | |
Sex | 0.610 | −0.185 | −2.686 | −0.265 | 1.034 | 0.017 | |
Body mass index | 0.120 | −0.214 | −0.574 | −0.098 | 1.033 | 0.006 | |
Treatment with β-blocker | |||||||
Steps (daily physical activity) | |||||||
Presence of atrial fibrillation | 0.611 | −0.304 | −3.673 | −1.247 | 1.008 | < 0.0001 | |
Presence of sarcopenia | |||||||
Hemoglobin level | |||||||
Epicardial adipose tissue thickness | |||||||
Presence of Type 2 diabetes mellitus | 0.604 | −0.551 | −5.597 | −3.200 | 1.013 | < 0.0001 |