Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic and unprecedented control measures, such as lockdown, quarantine, social distancing, and home confinement [
1,
2], may have caused marked changes in our mental and behavioral health within a short timeframe. As a large proportion of the global population hunkers down in isolation, negative emotions (e.g., boredom, loneliness, distress) and excessive use of digital platforms may substantially increase. Thus, problems related to mental health (e.g., depression) and digital lifestyles (e.g., smart phone addiction) may have become significant public health concerns.
It is already evident that the direct and indirect psychological effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and control measures are pervasive and may affect mental health now and in the future (e.g., [
3‐
7]). A number of cross-sectional studies have reported high prevalence of probable depression (assessed by non-clinical measures of depression) during COVID-19 [
8‐
10]. For example, compared to pre-COVID studies, significant increase in prevalence of depressive symptoms among general population have been observed in China (26.9% vs 2.1%) [
8,
11], Italy (32.4% vs 6%) [
9] and Germany (14.3% vs 5.6%) [
10]. However, we did not identify any longitudinal study directly monitoring the changes in depressive symptoms in the same sample over time. We only identified one study analyzing data from the U.S. Census Bureau collected before and during the COVID pandemic which found that depression prevalence in the US increased from 6.6% in 2019 to 24.9% in late May 2020 [
12].
On the other hand, as individuals may largely depend on digital platforms for social connection, entertainment, and information sharing during COVID-19, their digital lifestyles may have been changed. However, it is worth noting that protracted periods of isolation, technology-based activity, and limited face-to-face interaction may have intensified digital related behavioral problems, such as smart phone addiction (SPA). SPA refers to the phenomenon characterized by withdrawal symptoms, tolerance, dependence, and social problems when individuals overindulge in smart phone use [
13]. In addition, SPA has also been termed mobile phone dependence [
14] and problematic phone use [
15,
16]. Some studies used these terms interchangeably, while some conceptualized them differently. It has been documented that SPA can lead to severe mental health problems, such as anxiety disorders, depression, higher perceived stress and insomnia [
17,
18], and may increase the danger of solidifying unhealthy lifestyle patterns and leading to difficulties to re-adaptation when the COVID-19 crisis has passed [
19‐
21]. Although the expert consensus on the need of preventing such technology-related disorders and behavioral addiction due to COVID-19 has been highlighted by a couple of commentaries, empirical research on these problems is lacking [
19‐
21]. A brief report conducted by Sun (2020) found that 46.8% of the subjects reported increased internet dependence during the pandemic in China [
21]. We did not identify any studies on SPA in the context of COVID-19. Monitoring the changes in mental and behavioral problems at different COVID-19 epidemic stages will facilitate early detection and early treatment.
Negative emotions, such as boredom and loneliness, due to the COVID-19 isolation may have substantially increased during COVID-19 [
22,
23], and may be important psychological factors of depression and SPA. Boredom refers to a state of relatively low arousal and dissatisfaction, which is attributed to an inadequately and mentally stimulating environment [
24]. This state is transitory; a person may be in a state of boredom in one instant or situation and not in the next instant or another situation [
24]. Loneliness is defined as “an enduring condition of emotional distress that arises when a person feels estranged from, misunderstood, or rejected by others and/or lacks appropriate social partners for desired activities, particularly activities that provide a sense of social integration and opportunities for emotional intimacy.” (p. 1391) [
25]. Both boredom and loneliness are well-documented risk factors of depression in non-COVID contexts (e.g., [
26,
27]). Also, the three states frequently co-occur, and measures of the three states are substantially correlated [
28]. To our knowledge, no study tested the association between boredom or loneliness experienced and depression during COVID-19. In addition, individuals with great loneliness and boredom may excessively use smart phone as a means of relieving these negative emotions and ameliorating social isolation during COVID-19, which may increase the risk of SPA. According to the general strain theory, negative emotions resulted in external and environmental stress can lead to addictive behaviors and behavioral problems especially when individuals fail to find legitimate ways to manage their negative emotions and feel the need to attack or escape from adversity [
29]. The theory has been used to explain a broader range of maladaptive outcomes, especially various forms of addiction, such as substance use and internet dependence in non-COVID contexts [
30‐
33]. We did not identify any studies that examined the associations between boredom or loneliness and SPA.
The present study
The four-wave longitudinal study aimed to monitor the levels of SPA and depressive symptoms before and during COVID-19 in a sample of college students in China. Furthermore, the study investigated the potential risk factors of SPA and depressive symptoms, including quarantine status, lockdown, and emotional distress (i.e., boredom, loneliness) during COVID-19. It is hypothesized that quarantine status, lockdown, boredom, and loneliness would be positively associated with SPA and depressive symptoms.
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.