Background
Methods
Study design and procedure
Ethics and consent
Measures
Knowledge about COVID-19
Mental health symptoms
Intolerance of uncertainty scale (IUS)
Arabic brief COPE scale
Pilot study
Data analysis plan
Results
Survey respondents
Sociodemographic variables
Variable | n (%) |
---|---|
Gender | |
Male | 1079 (35.6) |
Female | 1953 (64.4) |
Age groups | |
18–27 years | 596 (19.7) |
28–37 years | 950 (31.3) |
38–47 years | 767 (25.3) |
48–57 years | 501 (16.5) |
> =58 years | 218 (7.2) |
Marital status | |
Single | 874 (28.8) |
Married | 1949 (64.3) |
Divorced | 171 (5.6) |
Widowed | 38 (1.3) |
Region of residence in Saudi Arabia | |
Eastern Region | 386 (12.7) |
Western Regions | 678 (22.4) |
Northern Regions | 204 (6.7) |
Southern Regions | 207 (6.8) |
Central Region | 1557 (51.4) |
Occupation | |
Student | 296 (9.8) |
Government Sector | 933 (30.8) |
Healthcare | 558 (18.4) |
Freelance/Private Sector | 533 (17.6) |
Unemployed | 659 (21.7) |
Trade | 53 (1.7) |
Contact with patients at work: | |
Yes | 606 (20) |
No | 2426 (80) |
Family member with patient contact at work: | |
Yes | 1107 (36.5) |
No | 1925 (63.5) |
Had contact with a suspected or confirmed COVID-19 case: | |
Yes | 138 (4.6) |
No | 2065 (68.1) |
Unsure | 829 (27.3) |
Contact history
History of illness
Illness History | n (%) |
---|---|
Chronic Medical Illnesses: | 669 (22.06) |
Diagnosed Mental Illnesses: | 584 (19.26) |
Depressive Disorders | 317 (10.46) |
Anxiety Disorders | 339 (11.2) |
Neurodevelopmental Disorders | 4 (0.13) |
Psychotic Disorders | 10 (0.33) |
Bipolar Spectrum Disorders | 22 (0.73) |
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder | 72 (2.37) |
Trauma and Stress-Related Disorders | 36 (1.19) |
Eating Disorders | 28 (0.92) |
Sleep Disorders | 95 (3.13) |
Personality Disorders | 31 (1.02) |
Other Mental Disorders | 81 (2.67) |
Symptom severity
Subscale Severity Level | Cut-off scoresa | n (%) |
---|---|---|
Depression Subscalea2 (0–42) | ||
Normal | (0–9) | 2007 (66.2) |
Mild | (10–13) | 393 (13) |
Moderate | (14–20) | 381 (12.6) |
Severe | (21–27) | 118 (3.9) |
Very severe | (≥28) | 133 (4.4) |
Anxiety Subscalea2 (0–42) | ||
Normal | (0–7) | 2303 (76) |
Mild | (8–9) | 197 (6.5) |
Moderate | (10–14) | 322 (10.6) |
Severe | (15–19) | 106 (3.5) |
Very severe | (≥20) | 104 (3.4) |
Stress Subscalea2 (0–42) | ||
Normal | (0–14) | 2430 (80.1) |
Mild | (15–18) | 220 (7.3) |
Moderate | (19–25) | 182 (6) |
Severe | (26–33) | 135 (4.5) |
Very severe | (≥34) | 65 (2.1) |
Correlation between mental health symptoms, intolerance of uncertainty, and coping strategies
Mean (SD) | Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient (r) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Depression | Anxiety | Stress | Insomnia Severity (ISI) | Intolerance of Uncertainty Score (IUS) | Positive coping | ||
DASS-21 Depression Score*2 | 8.01 (8.27) | ||||||
DASS-21 Anxiety Score*2 | 4.69 (6.04) | 0.71* | |||||
DASS-21 Stress Score*2 | 9.00 (8.68) | 0.81* | 0.78* | ||||
Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) Score. | 8.03 (6.21) | 0.54* | 0.50* | 0.59* | |||
Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale (IUS) Score | 29.35 (10.50) | 0.56* | 0.51* | 0.58* | 0.45* | ||
Problem-Based coping (Brief COPE) composite score | 5.46 (1.79) | - 0.10* | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.17* | |
Emotion-Based coping (Brief COPE) composite score | 3.19 (1.43) | 0.48* | 0.48* | 0.51* | 0.41* | 0.50* | 0.38* |
Knowledge about COVID-19
Regression models for mental health symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic
Regression model for depression
n (%) | B (95% CI) | Standardized Beta | t-value | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Constant) | 0.320 (0.255 to 0.385) | 9.652 | < 0.001 | ||
Gender = Female | 1953 (64.40) | 0.062 (0.041 to 0.083) | 0.081 | 5.814 | < 0.001 |
Age (years) | −0.001 (−0.002 to 0.000) | −0.041 | −2.896 | 0.004 | |
Had contact with suspected or confirmed a COVID-19 case = Yes/Unsure | 967 (31.89) | 0.033 (0.012 to 0.054) | 0.043 | 3.128 | 0.002 |
History of depressive disorders = Yes | 317 (10.46) | 0.094 (0.060 to 0.127) | 0.078 | 5.525 | < 0.001 |
History of trauma and stress-related disorders = Yes | 36 (1.19) | 0.061 (−0.028 to 0.151) | 0.018 | 1.340 | 0.180 |
History of sleep disorders = Yes | 95 (3.13) | −0.083 (− 0.140 to − 0.026) | −0.040 | −2.863 | 0.004 |
Believes anosmia is a COVID-19 symptom = Yes | 1045 (34.47) | 0.027 (0.007 to 0.048) | 0.035 | 2.621 | 0.009 |
Believes wearing medical gloves prevents the spread of COVID-19 = Yes | 1562 (51.52) | − 0.023 (− 0.042 to − 0.003) | −0.031 | −2.230 | 0.026 |
Believes using tissues when sneezing prevents the spread of COVID-19 = Yes | 2594 (85.55) | −0.017 (− 0.045 to 0.011) | −0.016 | −1.180 | 0.238 |
Believes there is a treatment for COVID-19 = No | 1765 (58.21) | 0.021 (0.001 to 0.040) | 0.028 | 2.062 | 0.039 |
Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) | 0.017 (0.015 to 0.019) | 0.288 | 17.936 | < 0.001 | |
Intolerance of Uncertainty Scores (IUS) | 0.010 (0.008 to 0.011) | 0.274 | 16.818 | < 0.001 | |
Problem-based coping composite score (Brief COPE) | −0.039 (−0.047 to − 0.030) | −0.140 | −9.267 | < 0.001 | |
Emotion-based coping composite score (Brief COPE) | 0.100 (0.087 to 0.114) | 0.247 | 14.502 | < 0.001 |
Regression model for anxiety
n (%) | B (95% CI) | Standardized Beta | t-value | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Constant) | 0.145 (0.086 to 0.205) | 4.790 | < 0.001 | ||
Gender = Female | 0.046 (0.025 to 0.066) | 0.063 | 4.417 | < 0.001 | |
Age (years) | −0.002 (− 0.003 to − 0.001) | −0.054 | − 2.948 | 0.003 | |
Married, Divorced, or Widowed = Yes | 2158 (71.17) | 0.030 (0.005 to 0.055) | 0.040 | 2.353 | 0.019 |
Had contact with a suspected or confirmed COVID-19 case = Yes/Unsure | 967 (31.89) | 0.053 (0.032 to 0.073) | 0.072 | 5.056 | < 0.001 |
History of chronic medical illness = Yes | 669 (22.06) | 0.039 (0.015 to 0.062) | 0.047 | 3.236 | 0.001 |
History of depressive disorders = Yes | 317 (10.46) | 0.027 (−0.007 to 0.061) | 0.024 | 1.578 | 0.115 |
History of anxiety disorders = Yes | 339 (11.18) | 0.070 (0.037 to 0.103) | 0.064 | 4.201 | < 0.001 |
Believes diarrhea is a COVID-19 symptom = Yes | 975 (32.16) | 0.024 (0.004 to 0.044) | 0.033 | 2.381 | 0.017 |
Believes wearing medical gloves prevents the spread of COVID-19 = Yes | 1562 (51.52) | −0.032 (− 0.051 to − 0.014) | −0.047 | −3.392 | 0.001 |
Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) | 0.014 (0.012 to 0.016) | 0.252 | 15.253 | < 0.001 | |
Intolerance of Uncertainty Scores (IUS) | 0.008 (0.007 to 0.009) | 0.249 | 14.739 | < 0.001 | |
Problem-based coping composite score (Brief COPE) | −0.030 (−0.038 to − 0.022) | −0.115 | −7.388 | < 0.001 | |
Emotion-based coping composite score (Brief COPE) | 0.103 (0.089 to 0.116) | 0.268 | 15.177 | < 0.001 |
Regression model for stress
n (%) | B (95% CI) | Standardized Beta | t-value | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Constant) | −5.429 (−6.78 to −4.078) | −7.878 | < 0.001 | ||
Gender = Female | 1953 (64.40) | 1.250 (0.785 to 1.716) | 0.069 | 5.272 | < 0.001 |
Age (years) | −0.032 (−.056 to − 0.009) | −0.043 | −2.741 | 0.006 | |
Married, Divorced, or Widowed = Yes | 2158 (71.17) | 0.692 (0.117 to 1.267) | 0.036 | 2.359 | 0.018 |
Had contact with a 19 suspected or confirmed COVID- case = Yes/Unsure | 967 (31.89) | 1.154 (0.689 to 1.620) | 0.062 | 4.862 | < 0.001 |
History of mental illness = Yes | 584 (19.26) | 0.603 (− 0.146 to 1.352) | 0.027 | 1.580 | 0.114 |
History of depressive disorders = Yes | 317 (10.46) | 1.778 (0.827 to 2.729) | 0.063 | 3.666 | < 0.001 |
Believes joint pain is a COVID-19 symptom = Yes | 1300 (42.88) | 0.378 (−0.061 to 0.817) | 0.022 | 1.688 | 0.092 |
Believes anosmia is a COVID-19 symptom = Yes | 1045 (34.47) | 0.562 (0.105 to 1.019) | 0.031 | 2.410 | 0.016 |
Believes wearing medical gloves prevents the spread of COVID-19 = Yes | 1562 (51.52) | −0.690 (−1.117 to − 0.262) | −0.040 | −3.163 | 0.002 |
Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) | 0.453 (0.412 to 0.494) | 0.324 | 21.725 | < 0.001 | |
Intolerance of Uncertainty Scores (IUS) | 0.250 (0.225 to 0.275) | 0.302 | 19.777 | < 0.001 | |
Problem-based coping composite score (Brief COPE) | −0.856 (−1.037 to − 0.674) | −0.131 | −9.252 | < 0.001 | |
Emotion-based coping composite score (Brief COPE) | 2.277 (1.975 to 2.580) | 0.236 | 14.754 | < 0.001 |
Regression model for insomnia severity
n (%) | B (95% CI) | Standardized Beta | t-value | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Constant) | 2.053 (0.413 to 3.693) | 2.455 | 0.014 | ||
Gender = Female | 1953 (64.40) | 0.180 (− 0.199 to 0.560) | .014 | .930 | 0.352 |
Age (years) | −0.069 (− 0.086 to − 0.052) | −0.129 | −7.983 | < 0.001 | |
Occupation | 0.111 (−0.020 to 0.242) | 0.025 | 1.665 | 0.096 | |
Had contact with a suspected or confirmed COVID-19 case = Yes/Unsure | 967 (31.89) | 0.235 (−0.106 to 0.576) | 0.020 | 1.349 | 0.177 |
History of chronic medical illness = Yes | 669 (22.06) | 0.580 (0.141 to 1.020) | 0.039 | 2.592 | 0.010 |
History of depressive disorders = Yes | 317 (10.46) | 0.876 (0.266 to 1.487) | 0.043 | 2.816 | 0.005 |
History of sleep disorders = Yes | 95 (3.13) | 4.621 (3.598 to 5.644) | 0.130 | 8.857 | < 0.001 |
Believes a person have COVID-19 without having had contact with someone carrying the virus = yes | 1268 (41.82) | 0.255 (− 0.100 to 0.611) | 0.020 | 1.408 | 0.159 |
Believes shortness of breath is a symptom of COVID-19 = yes | 2920 (96.30) | 0.759 (−0.198 to 1.716) | 0.023 | 1.554 | 0.120 |
Believes not touching one’s face prevents COVID-19 = Yes | 2621 (86.44) | 0.657 (0.105 to 1.209) | 0.036 | 2.332 | 0.020 |
Believes using tissues when sneezing prevents COVID19 = Yes | 2594 (85.55) | −0.660 (− 1.197 to − 0.123) | −0.037 | −2.409 | 0.016 |
DASS-21 Anxiety Subscale Score | 0.146 (0.104 to 0.188) | 0.142 | 6.782 | < 0.001 | |
DASS-21 Depression Subscale Score | 0.183 (0.150 to 0.215) | 0.243 | 10.868 | < 0.001 | |
Intolerance of Uncertainty scores (IUS) | 0.087 (0.066 to 0.109) | 0.148 | 7.996 | < 0.001 | |
Problem-based coping composite score (Brief COPE) | −0.098 (−0.253 to 0.056) | − 0.021 | −1.248 | 0.212 | |
Emotion-based coping composite score (Brief COPE) | 0.704 (0.445 to 0.963) | 0.102 | 5.335 | < 0.001 |