Dexosomes represent promising antitumor entities because of their potent immunostimulatory effects, their insensitivity to the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, and their potency to reduce tumor burden in laboratory models. In the following section, we will focus on the ability of dexosomes to initiate effective innate and adaptive immune responses in preclinical models.
Several studies revealed that dexosomes have the potential of activating CD8
+ T cell clones in vitro either alone [
136] or when incubated with DCs that produce allogeneic MHC I proteins [
137]. These findings indicate functionality of dexosomal antigen-MHC I assemblies. The first evidence supporting dexosome-mediated triggering of CD8
+ T cells was reported in 1998 by Zitvogel and colleagues [
107]. They showed that dexosomes isolated from BMDCs containing TAA-MHC I complexes acted efficiently in both suppression and eradication of an established malignancy in immune-competent but not immune-deficient mice [
107]. The efficiency of this process was improved when dexosomes were administered concomitantly with mature DCs or chemical adjuvants that encouraged DC maturation [
118]. Zitvogel et al. also demonstrated that dexosomes were more effective than their parent DCs in terms of tumor suppression, and that autologous (not allogeneic) dexosomes could induce TAA-targeted CTL response ex vivo, emphasizing the role of dexosomal MHC I throughout this process [
107]. Dexosomes of mature DCs (in comparison with the dexosomes of immature DCs) were more effective in triggering CD8
+ T cell immunity, indicating the importance of costimulatory factors present on dexosomes of mature DC origins [
138]. Another study demonstrated that human dexosomes loaded directly with MART1 peptide (melan-A antigen; a TAA) harbored intact functional peptide-MHC I assemblies to target DCs ex vivo [
118]. Here, it was further shown that dexosome-pulsed DCs were more effective in activation of CD8
+ T cells than peptide-pulsed DCs. Induction of CD8
+ T cell recalls was also confirmed when DCs lacking the TAP molecules (transporter associated with antigen processing) were used as the recipient [
139]. In endocytic pathway, internalized antigens are carried from endosomes into the cytosol for proteasomal degradation [
140]. Antigen-derived peptides are then carried by the TAP molecules into the endoplasmic reticulum or back into the antigen-containing endosomes, where they can be incorporated onto MHC I molecules [
141]. However, Lawand et al. recently reported that some antigens may enter the endocytic pathway in a TAP-independent manner, indicating the possibility of other transporters dedicated to antigen translocation into endosomes for cross-presentation to CTLs [
139].
Dexosome-mediated transference of peptide-MHC I assemblies to DCs was also observed in vivo. Autologous dexosomes loaded with antigenic peptides were able to transfer them to allogeneic DCs and initiate peptide-specific stimulation of CD8
+ T cells in mouse. Intriguingly, intravenous administration of autologous dexosomes alone did not trigger any CD8
+ T cell response [
118]. Likewise, no noticeable level of antigen-specific CD8
+ T cells was observed when MHC I-restricted peptide of ovalbumin (OVA, SIIN-FEKL) was loaded onto dexosomes [
142]. Conversely, whole OVA protein-loaded dexosomes (with indirect method) were capable of initiating protein-targeted CD8
+ T cell response. This effect depended mostly on CD4
+ T cells and partly on B cells, particularly marginal zone B cells [
142]. Further investigation by Hao et al. revealed that CD8
+ T cell propagation induced by dexosomes loaded with protein relied on CD4
+ T cells [
143] and CD11c
+ DCs [
144].
A number of strategies was adopted in order to promote dexosomal-mediated antigen-specific CD8
+ T cell responses. Viaud et al. introduced IFNγ as a key cytokine that stimulates dexosomal expression of CD40, CD80, CD86, and CD54 molecules which result in induction of direct and powerful antigen-dependent CD8
+ T cell responses by dexosomes derived from IFNγ-matured MCDCs [
111]. Another strategy is to inject dexosomes comprising a danger signal like a TLR ligand, such as polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly (I:C)) or CpG-ODN, that boost DC maturation [
118]. Here, a humanized MHC I-deficient murine model was used for administration of two therapeutic dosages of dexosomes pulsed with human peptides and coinjected with CpG-ODN, and it was found that tumor development was significantly decreased compared to mice that received tumor peptide-CpG-ODN [
118]. αGC-loaded dexosomes were also reported to promote CD8
+ T cell responses against a concurrently loaded antigen [
145]. When DCs were exposed to the lysates of B16F10 melanoma cells with the aim of loading TAAs onto dexosomes, the prepared vaccine led to stimulation of melanoma-specific CD8
+ T cells and recruitment of CTLs, NKs, and NKTs in the subcutaneously grafted melanoma tumors in mice. Consequently, tumor development was remarkably decreased and survival prolonged. DCs loaded with gastric TAAs demonstrated the ability to trigger the proliferation of CTLs. Additionally, by binding to TLR ligands, dexosomes can activate adjacent DCs to express transmembrane TNF and produce pro-inflammatory cytokines [
146].
Several investigations attempted to change the molecular make-up of dexosomes to generate tolerogeneic vesicles with immunosuppressive features. Genetically-modified BMDCs produce IL4, IL10 or FasL molecules that repress the inflammation caused by DTH in a murine model of collagen-induced arthritis [
147,
148]. Similarly, when donor dexosomes were injected to a rat model of cardiac transplantation, chronic allograft rejection response was remarkably delayed [
149]. Dexosomes produced from TGFβ1- and IL10-matured DCs could also induce immune tolerance in a skin allograft murine model [
150]. Moreover, DCs overexpressing indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) molecules produced dexosomes that reduced inflammation in a rheumatoid arthritis model [
151]. Lu et al. recently demonstrated that in a murine model of autochthonous hepatocellular carcinoma, mice treated with dexosomes isolated from DCs that expressed α-fetoprotein (AFP) had remarkably more IFNγ-producing CD8
+ T cells, enhanced levels of IL2 and IFNγ, fewer Tregs and reduced levels of IL10 and TGFβ [
152]. Therefore, dexosomes are capable of promoting T cell stimulation along with downregulating immunosuppressive responses, which serve as a promising tool to create efficient antitumor vaccines.
While dexosomes can present antigens and directly trigger cognate CD8
+ T cell clones, lines [
138], or primed CD4
+ T cells [
153], they need to be captured by bystander DCs to activate naïve CD4
+ T cells [
91,
125,
153]. Dexosomes were reported to transfer peptide-MHC II complexes to MHC II-deficient DCs, and allowed them to trigger antigen-specific CD4
+ T cells [
91,
125]. As reported for CD8
+ T cells, dexosomes of mature DCs were also more effective in CD4
+ T cell activation in vitro [
91]. Peptide- or protein-loaded dexosomes could hinder tumor growth by recruiting CD4
+ and CD8
+ T and B cells in vivo [
142]. Further in vivo studies demonstrated that dexosomes loaded with antigens and generated using TLR3 agonist, poly (I:C), and OVA initiated the propagation of OVA-specific CD4
+ and CD8
+ T cells [
154]. These results were remarkably superior compared to using CpG-B and LPS for TLR9 and TLR4, respectively. When antigen-pulsed dexosomes from mature, but not immature, DCs were injected from male into female mouse models, the male skin grafts were rejected because activated CD4
+ T cells were differentiated into effector CD4
+ T cells in vivo [
91].
As previously mentioned for CD8
+ T cells, dexosomes are able to initiate propagation of antigen-specific CD4
+ T cells once they are loaded with whole protein antigens. It was assumed that this effect depended upon a functional compartment belonging to B cells, since the proliferation of CD4
+ T cells was not detected in B cell receptor signaling deficient btk
−/− mice [
155]. These findings imply that dexosome-borne antigens are ingested, processed, and presented by DCs to T and B cells, a hypothesis further approved in an investigation where allogeneic I-Ad
+ dexosomes could stimulate allo-specific CD4
+ T cell proliferation in I-Ab
+ mice [
121]. Dexosomes loaded directly or indirectly with peptide-MHC II assemblies could trigger specific CD4
+ T cell responses in vivo [
121,
125]. In vitro, dexosomes could not trigger antigen-specific T cell activation unless mature CD8α
− DCs were also present in the culture environment. These mature DCs could be MHC II-deficient, but had to express CD80 and CD86 costimulatory factors. Moreover, in comparison with CD8α
+ DCs, CD8α
− DCs were more powerful in induction of CD4
+ T cell immunity [
125]. In another study, it was reported that CD8α
+, but not CD8α
−, DCs purified from the lymph nodes of dexosome-treated mice were capable of stimulating antigen-targeted CD4
+ T cell proliferation ex vivo [
121,
156]. Qazi et al. compared the efficiency of dexosomes directly loaded with OVA peptide with dexosomes derived from OVA-pulsed DCs in initiating specific CD4
+ T cell responses in vitro and in vivo, and showed that both dexosomes could elicit T cell proliferation in vitro, with peptide-loaded dexosomes being more effective. Conversely, in vivo, only dexosomes produced from OVA-pulsed DCs could induce CD4
+ T cell proliferation, emphasizing the significance of indirect antigen-loading approaches in clinical applications. Moreover, these dexosomes were able to induce the polarization of T cells to the Th1 type in a B cell-dependent fashion, which highlights the importance of B cells in producing T cell responses through a dexosome-dependent pathway [
155].
Exosomes originated from various APC origins contribute to the elicitation of B cell immunity both ex vivo and in vivo. Segura et al. demonstrated that dexosomes can harbor both antigen-MHC assemblies and ICAM1 molecules to less-efficient APCs, such as B cells, leading to T cell stimulation in an indirect way [
91]. Naslund et al. also demonstrated B cells were essential for optimal triggering of CD8
+ T cells via dexosomes [
157]. Mycoplasma-infected BMDCs release dexosomes that are able to initiate polyclonal propagation of primary B cells independent of CD40, LPS, or CpG signaling pathways in vitro [
158]. In another study, allogeneic BMDC dexosomes were administered systematically (intravenous/intraperitoneal injection) to rats before transplantation with the aim of exploring anti-allograft immune responses. Here, dexosomes could initiate the in vivo production of IgG2a and b antibodies (type I antibodies) specific to dexosomal antigens, and resulted in extended survival of the allograft [
159]. Likewise, BMDCs pulsed with diphtheria toxoid or OVA antigen resulted in the production of antigen-specific type I antibodies [
155,
160]. Titers of specific antibodies can be amplified by simultaneous pulsing of BMDCs with αGC and an antigenic protein [
145].
Taken together, all the above-mentioned reports confirm that dexosomes are perfectly capable of exerting potent immune responses and hence possess great therapeutic values against a variety of immune-related diseases, including malignancies.