Introduction
Methods
Study population
Age-related macular degeneration characterisation
Assessment of dietary intake
Dietary pattern identification
Food groups | Food items included (from the FFQ) |
---|---|
Red meat | Minced beef, beef-burgers (fried), roast beef, roast pork |
Organ meat | Liver |
Poultry | Roast chicken |
Processed meat | Grilled pork sausages, bacon gammon joint, black pudding, ham, salami, chicken pie |
White fish and shellfish | Fish fingers, battered cod, poached white fish (cod), smoked white fish (cod), fish cakes, prawns, mussels |
Oily fish | Fried mackerel, grilled salmon, smoked salmon, tinned tuna, sardines |
Refined grains (excludes refined cereals) | White sliced bread, soft white roll, garlic bread, pitta bread, white rice, pasta (spaghetti), noodles, scones, crackers, savoury pancakes |
Wholegrains (excludes wholegrain cereals) | Brown rice, oatcakes |
Potatoes without waffles and roasts | Boiled potatoes, mashed potatoes, potato salad |
French fries with waffles and roasts | Home-cooked and retail French fries, potato waffles, roast potatoes |
Chips | Chips, reduced fat chips, tortilla chips |
Pizza | Pizza |
Low fat dairy excluding Horlicks | Semi-skimmed milk, skimmed milk, low fat yogurt, low calorie yogurt, low fat cheese, cottage cheese |
High fat dairy | Full fat milk, full fat yogurt, fromage frais, cream, cheddar cheese, cheese spread, Philadelphia cheese, dried milk |
Eggs | Boiled hen’s egg, fried egg, scrambled egg, quiche |
Dressings/sauces/condiments | White sauce, ketchup, mayonnaise, oil and vinegar dressing, tomato chutney, gravy, marmite |
Desserts (excluding biscuits) | Milk-based pudding, sponge puddings, cheesecake, fruit pie, mousse, custard, Cornetto, other ice cream, sponge cake, sponge cake with jam/cream/icing, fruit cake, doughnuts |
Chocolate excluding hot chocolate | Dairy milk bar |
Biscuits | Cereal bars, digestive biscuits, custard creams, shortbread, chocolate coated biscuits |
Sugar and sweets | Toffees, boiled sweets, fruit gums, jam |
Nuts | Peanuts, unsalted nuts, peanut butter |
Soup | Home-made soup (vegetable), tinned soup (tomato), instant soup |
Tea | Tea, herbal tea |
Coffee | Instant coffee, decaffeinated coffee, cappuccino |
Alcohol | Low alcohol beer, dark beer (stout), light beer (lager), white wine, red wine, sherry/port, spirits/liqueurs, alcopops, cider |
Fruit juice | Pure orange juice, tomato juice |
Fruit | Fresh fruit salad, tinned fruit, apples, bananas, oranges, pears, peaches, kiwi, mixed dried fruit, grapes |
Vegetables | Mixed vegetable stir-fry, tinned vegetables, coleslaw, sweet peppers |
Lutein-zeaxanthin-rich vegetables | Carrots, sweetcorn, lettuce |
Cruciferous green leafy vegetables | Cabbage, brussel sprouts, broccoli, spinach, cauliflower |
Legumes | Peas, baked beans, soya beans, kidney beans, lentils |
Allium family | Leeks, onions |
Tomato group | Tomatoes, tomato pasta sauce |
Meat replacement products | Soya milk, vegeburgers, quorn, tofu |
Soft drinks | Blackcurrant squash, fruit squash, diet cola, regular fizzy drinks |
Hot chocolate and Horlicks | Hot chocolate, Horlicks |
Refined breakfast cereals | Cornflakes, Crunchy nut cornflakes |
Wholegrain breakfast cereals | Porridge, all bran, muesli, Weetabix |
Demographic, lifestyle and anthropometric data
Statistical analysis
Results
Characteristic | Mean (SD)a | Range |
---|---|---|
Age (year) | 76.3 (8.0) | 56–100 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 24.6 (5.1) | 13.3–60.1 |
Height (m) | 1.61 (0.1) | 1.25–1.82 |
Weight (kg) | 63.8 (13.0) | 33–159 |
MABP (mmHg) | 92.5 (10.3) | 57–147 |
AMD status: | ||
Controls, n (%) | 818 (86.9) | |
Early AMD, n (%) | 83 (8.8) | |
Late AMD, n (%) | 21 (2.2) | |
Smoking status*: | ||
Never, n (%) | 905 (96.3) | |
Ever, n (%) | 35 (3.7) | |
Alcohol intake*: | ||
None, n (%) | 864 (91.8) | |
1–7 measures/week, n (%) | 74 (7.9) | |
> 7 measures/week, n (%) | 3 (0.3) | |
CVA, n (%) | 30 (3.2) | |
Diabetes mellitus, n (%) | 31 (3.3) | |
IHD, n (%) | 107 (11.4) | |
HTN, n (%) | 390 (41.5) |
Food groups | Healthy (Factor 1) | Unhealthy (Factor 2) |
---|---|---|
Red meat | 0.263 | 0.234 |
Processed meat | – | 0.369 |
White fish and shellfish | – | 0.224 |
Oily fish | 0.375 | – |
Refined grains | – | 0.302 |
Wholegrains | – | 0.385 |
Potatoes | – | 0.359 |
French fries | – | 0.511 |
Chips | – | 0.554 |
Pizza | 0.297 | – |
Low fat dairy | 0.305 | – |
High fat dairy | – | 0.466 |
Eggs | – | 0.356 |
Dressings | 0.29 | 0.382 |
Desserts | – | 0.436 |
Chocolate | – | 0.252 |
Sugars and sweets | – | 0.415 |
Nuts | 0.386 | – |
Soups | – | 0.452 |
Alcohol | – | 0.482 |
Fruit | 0.517 | – |
Vegetables | 0.558 | 0.243 |
L/Z rich vegetables | 0.714 | – |
Green leafy vegetables | 0.696 | – |
Legumes | 0.429 | – |
Alliums | 0.59 | – |
Tomato | 0.454 | – |
Refined breakfast cereal | – | 0.256 |
Wholegrain breakfast cereal | 0.274 | – |
Dietary pattern | OR (95% CI) |
P
| OR (95% CI) |
P
| OR (95% CI) |
P
| |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dietary pattern 1 | |||||||
Healthy | Q1 (least healthy) | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 (most healthy) | |||
Model 1 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.15 (0.65, 2.04) | 0.62 | 0.99 (0.55, 1.77) | 0.97 | 0.86 (0.48, 1.55) | 0.62 |
Model 2 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.30 (0.71, 2.38) | 0.40 | 1.43 (0.77, 2.64) | 0.25 | 1.51 (0.80, 2.86) | 0.20 |
Model 3 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.29 (0.70, 2.37) | 0.41 | 1.38 (0.74, 2.57) | 0.31 | 1.50 (0.79, 2.86) | 0.21 |
Dietary pattern 2: | |||||||
Unhealthy | Q1 (least unhealthy) | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 (most unhealthy) | |||
Model 1 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.30 (0.70, 2.43) | 0.41 | 1.78 (0.99, 3.21) | 0.06 | 1.50 (0.82, 2.75) | 0.19 |
Model 2 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.22 (0.63, 2.34) | 0.56 | 1.54 (0.83, 2.86) | 0.17 | 1.34 (0.71, 2.54) | 0.37 |
Model 3 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.18 (0.61, 2.28) | 0.62 | 1.61 (0.86, 3.01) | 0.14 | 1.45 (0.76, 2.78) | 0.26 |