Background
Methods
Sample
Socio-demographic variables
Ethno-cultural background
Parental region of birth | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% (n) | Both from Western region | Both from C/African region | Both from Mahrebian region | One from C/African region/One from other region | One from Maghrebian region/One from other region | One from Western region/Missing information on other parent | Total |
p-value a
|
Sample size range by socio-demographic characteristic
|
660 - 778
|
16 - 25
|
33 - 39
|
37 - 54
|
67 - 81
|
112 - 129
|
925 - 1106
| |
Child’s gender
| ||||||||
Boy | 50.6 (394) | 48.0 (12) | 46.2 (18) | 55.6 (30) | 45.7 (37) | 45.0 (58) | 49.6 (549) | 0.712 |
Girl | 49.4 (384) | 52.0 (13) | 53.8 (21) | 44.4 (24) | 53.4 (44) | 55.0 (71) | 50.4 (557) | |
Child’s age, years
| ||||||||
Mean (SD) | 8.03 (1.47) | 8.24 (1.27) | 8.36 (1.65) | 8.07 (1.65) | 8.22 (1.52) | 8.41 (1.49) | 8.11 (1.49) | 0.105 |
6–8 years | 61.6 (478) | 68.0 (17) | 48.7 (19) | 63.0 (34) | 55.6 (45) | 50.0 (64) | 59.6 (657) | 0.088 |
9–11 years | 38.4 (298) | 32.0 (8) | 51.3 (20) | 37.0 (20) | 44.4 (36) | 50.0 (64) | 40.4 (446) | |
Number of children in household
| ||||||||
2 or 3 | 78.7 (612) | 52.0 (13) | 46.2 (18) | 64.8 (35) | 66.7 (54) | 55.8 (72) | 72.7 (804) |
<1 E-10
|
single child | 15.2 (118) | 8.0 (2) | 2.6 (1) | 13.0 (7) | 18.5 (15) | 38.0 (49) | 17.4 (192) | |
>3 | 6.2 (48) | 40.0 (10) | 51.3 (20) | 22.2 (12) | 14.8 (12) | 6.2 (8) | 10.0 (110) | |
Parental sociodemographic factors
| ||||||||
Single-parent home | 2.4 (19) | 0 (0) | 2.6 (1) | 25.9 (14) | 16.1 (13) | 86.1 (111) | 14.3 (158) |
<0.001
|
Monthly income (per person)
| ||||||||
High | 40.2 (283) | 4.4 (1) | 5.9 (2) | 23.4 (11) | 32.0 (24) | 3.3 (4) | 32.3 (325) |
<1 E-10
|
Medium | 35.7 (251) | 17.4 (4) | 20.6 (7) | 25.5 (12) | 24.0 (18) | 33.6 (41) | 33.1 (333) | |
Low | 24.2 (170) | 78.3 (18) | 73.5 (25) | 51.1 (24) | 44.0 (33) | 63.1 (77) | 34.5 (347) | |
Educationl level
| ||||||||
High | 43.4 (337) | 16.0 (4) | 5.3 (2) | 30.2 (16) | 35.0 (28) | 11.6 (15) | 36.5 (402) |
<1 E-10
|
Medium | 29.1 (226) | 16.0 (4) | 23.7 (9) | 20.8 (11) | 25.0 (20) | 26.4 (34) | 27.6 (304) | |
Low | 27.5 (213) | 68.0 (17) | 71.1 (27) | 49.1 (26) | 40.0 (32) | 62.0 (80) | 35.9 (395) | |
Employment status
| ||||||||
Unemployment of at least one parent | 9.9 (77) | 36.0 (9) | 37.8 (14) | 18.0 (9) | 17.7 (14) | 12.9 (16) | 12.7 (139) |
<0.001
|
Parental psychopathology
| ||||||||
Mother’s psychological distress (MH5) | 16.1 (106) | 31.3 (5) | 33.3 (11) | 24.3 (9) | 29.9 (20) | 26.8 (30) | 19.6 (181) |
0.001
|
Environmental factors
| ||||||||
Living in a DSA | 5.7 (44) | 36.0 (9) | 38.5 (15) | 25.9 (14) | 11.1 (9) | 12.4 (16) | 9.7 (107) |
<0.001
|
Living in a rural setting | 18.3 (142) | 8.0 (2) | 2.6 (1) | 7.4 (4) | 2.5 (2) | 16.3 (21) | 15.6 (172) |
<0.001
|
Parenting style and behavior
Parental psychological distress
Parent-reported child psychopathology
Child self-reported psychopathology
Statistical analysis
Results
% (n) | Father’s region of birth | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low caring behavior | Western region | C/African region | Maghrebian region | Missing | Total |
p-value
| |
Mother
| Western region | 12.2 (777) | 13.6 (22) | 13.3 (45) | 19.2 (125) | 13.2 (969) | 0.198 |
C/African region | 0 (15) | 29.2 (24) | 0 (2) | 41.7 (12) | 22.6 (53) |
0.023
| |
Maghrebian region | 15.4 (26) | - (0) | 13.9 (36) | 22.2 (9) | 15.5 (71) | 0.810 | |
Missing | 0 (1) | - (0) | 100 (1) | 100 (1) | 66.7 (3) | 1.000 | |
Total
| 12.1 (819) | 21.7 (46) | 14.3 (84) | 21.8 (147) | 14.0 (1096) |
0.008
| |
p-value
| 0.388 | 0.289 | 0.239 | 0.079 |
0.022
| ||
Low autonomy-promoting behavior
| |||||||
Mother
| Western region | 14.7 (770) | 13.6 (22) | 13.6 (44) | 12.6 (127) | 14.3 (963) | 0.950 |
C/African region | 20.0 (15) | 32.0 (25) | 0 (2) | 23.1 (13) | 25.5 (55) | 0.846 | |
Maghrebian region | 19.2 (26) | - (0) | 15.4 (39) | 11.1 (9) | 16.2 (74) | 0.906 | |
Missing | 100.0 (1) | - (0) | 0 (1) | 0 (1) | 33.3 (3) | 1.000 | |
Total
| 15.0 (812) | 23.4 (47) | 14.0 (86) | 13.3 (150) | 15.1 (1095) | 0.407 | |
p-value
| 0.154 | 0.179 | 1.000 | 0.523 | 0.085 | ||
Punitive behavior
| |||||||
Mother
| Western region | 13.3 (755) | 4.6 (22) | 16.3 (43) | 15.1 (126) | 13.4 (946) | 0.570 |
C/African region | 26.7 (15) | 32.0 (25) | 50.0 (2) | 40.0 (10) | 32.7 (52) | 0.840 | |
Maghrebian region | 7.7 (26) | - (0) | 18.9 (37) | 37.5 (8) | 16.9 (71) | 0.111 | |
Missing | 0 (1) | - (0) | 0 (1) | 0 (1) | 0 (3) | - | |
Total
| 13.3 (797) | 19.2 (47) | 18.1 (83) | 17.9 (145) | 14.6 (1072) | 0.226 | |
p-value
| 0.304 |
0.025
| 0.481 | 0.062 |
0.004
|
Parental region of birth | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% (n) | Both from Western region | Both from C/African region | Both from Mahrebian region | One from C/African region/One from other region | One from Maghrebian region/One from other region | One from Western region/Missing information on other parent | Total |
p-valuea
|
Parent-reported child psychopathology (SDQ) | ||||||||
Sample size range)
|
775
|
25
|
39
|
51
|
80
|
128–129
|
1098–1099
| |
Internalizing disorders
| 9.2 (71) | 20.0 (5) | 18.0 (7) | 13.7 (7) | 16.3 (13) | 11.6 (15) | 10.7 (118) | 0.064 |
CD | 9.8 (76) | 32.0 (8) | 20.5 (8) | 7.8 (4) | 16.3 (13) | 18.6 (24) | 12.1 (133) |
0.001
|
ADHD | 11.9 (92) | 12.0 (3) | 5.1 (2) | 7.8 (4) | 8.8 (7) | 14.1 (18) | 11.5 (126) | 0.644 |
Peer relationship difficulties | 13.3 (103) | 8.0 (2) | 23.1 (9) | 13.7 (7) | 21.3 (17) | 24.0 (31) | 15.4 (169) |
0.012
|
Total difficulties | 7.0 (54) | 12.0 (3) | 18.0 (7) | 7.8 (4) | 7.5 (6) | 16.4 (21) | 8.7 (95) |
0.005
|
Externalizing disorders
| 17.2 (133) | 32.0 (8) | 20.5 (8) | 13.7 (7) | 20.0 (16) | 24.0 (31) | 18.5 (203) | 0.179 |
Child self-reported psychopathology (Dominic interactive) | ||||||||
Sample size
|
778
|
25
|
39
|
54
|
81
|
129
|
1106
| |
GAD | 9.9 (77) | 20.0 (5) | 7.7 (3) | 3.7 (2) | 12.4 (10) | 14.0 (18) | 10.4 (115) | 0.159 |
SAD | 12.0 (93) | 20.0 (5) | 15.4 (6) | 11.1 (6) | 17.3 (14) | 17.1 (22) | 13.2 (146) | 0.321 |
SPh | 11.1 (86) | 20.0 (5) | 18.0 (7) | 7.4 (4) | 8.6 (7) | 16.3 (21) | 11.8 (130) | 0.160 |
MDD | 8.5 (66) | 16.0 (4) | 10.3 (4) | 3.7 (2) | 9.9 (8) | 10.9 (14) | 8.9 (98) | 0.432 |
CD | 9.4 (73) | 8.0 (2) | 12.8 (5) | 3.7 (2) | 7.4 (6) | 10.9 (14) | 9.2 (102) | 0.637 |
ODD | 10.5 (82) | 8.0 (2) | 15.4 (6) | 3.7 (2) | 9.9 (8) | 7.8 (10) | 10.0 (110) | 0.450 |
ADHD | 8.4 (65) | 20.0 (5) | 10.3 (4) | 3.7 (2) | 12.4 (10) | 9.3 (12) | 8.9 (98) | 0.193 |
Internalizing disorders
| 19.4 (151) | 32.0 (8) | 30.8 (12) | 16.7 (9) | 25.9 (21) | 27.9 (36) | 21.4 (237) | 0.057 |
Externalizing disorders
| 14.4 (112) | 20.0 (5) | 23.1 (9) | 7.4 (4) | 21.0 (17) | 14.0 (18) | 14.9 (165) | 0.161 |
Low caring | Low autonomy-promoting | Punitive | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crude | Adjusted | Crude | Adjusted | Crude | Adjusted | |||||||
OR |
P > z
| OR |
P > t
| OR |
P > z
| OR |
P > t
| OR |
P > z
| OR |
P > t
| |
Boy/girl | 1.19 |
0.317
| 1.34 | 0.108 |
2.02
|
<0.001
|
2.01
|
<0.001
| 1.26 |
0.185
| 1.37 | 0.081 |
Child age > = 9 years/less than 9 years |
1.50
|
0.022
|
1.49
|
0.029
|
0.35
|
<0.001
|
0.33
|
<0.001
|
0.69
|
0.043
|
0.66
|
0.029
|
Number of children in household
| ||||||||||||
single/2 or 3 | 0.65 |
0.115
| 0.58 | 0.059 | 0.87 |
0.570
| 0.93 | 0.781 | 0.77 |
0.304
| 0.76 | 0.285 |
more than 3/2 or 3 |
2.52
|
<0.001
|
2.08
|
0.006
| 1.44 |
0.157
| 1.49 | 0.171 | 1.29 |
0.350
| 0.94 | 0.846 |
Living apart from father yes/no | 1.49 |
0.085
| 0.67 | 0.356 | 0.88 |
0.605
| 1.06 | 0.902 | 1.30 |
0.271
| 0.99 | 0.986 |
Income
| ||||||||||||
medium/low |
0.61
|
0.020
| 0.70 | 0.128 | 0.91 |
0.648
| 1.06 | 0.806 | 0.75 |
0.182
| 1.02 | 0.941 |
high/low |
0.40
|
<0.001
|
0.56
|
0.053
| 0.96 |
0.832
| 1.14 | 0.643 |
0.64
|
0.046
| 0.99 | 0.985 |
Education level
| ||||||||||||
medium/low |
0.55
|
0.007
| 0.77 | 0.293 | 0.69 |
0.089
| 0.69 | 0.120 | 0.72 |
0.129
| 0.89 | 0.631 |
high/low |
0.48
|
<0.001
| 0.76 | 0.283 | 0.80 |
0.244
| 0.71 | 0.152 |
0.59
|
0.011
| 0.72 | 0.191 |
At least one parent unemployed yes/no | 1.36 |
0.212
| 0.91 | 0.740 | 0.83 |
0.488
| 0.74 | 0.302 |
1.81
|
0.010
| 1.33 | 0.264 |
Mother psychological distress yes/no |
1.86
|
0.004
|
1.67
|
0.029
| 0.76 | 0.266 | 0.84 | 0.521 |
2.48
|
<0.001
|
2.35
|
<0.001
|
Mother’s region of birth | ||||||||||||
Caribean Africa/Western | 1.92 |
0.056
| 1.13 | 0.748 |
2.04
|
0.027
| 1.99 | 0.064 |
3.13
|
<0.001
|
2.40
|
0.015
|
Maghreb/Western | 1.20 |
0.586
| 0.83 | 0.626 | 1.16 |
0.657
| 1.21 | 0.615 | 1.31 |
0.412
| 1.04 | 0.919 |
Homogeneity of couple | ||||||||||||
Yes/no | 1.09 |
0.775
| 1.22 | 0.560 | 0.97 |
0.920
| 1.08 | 0.802 | 1.02 |
0.958
| 1.34 | 0.361 |
Unknown/no |
2.01
|
0.051
| 2.51 | 0.074 | 0.84 |
0.623
| 0.94 | 0.908 | 1.37 |
0.376
| 1.54 | 0.403 |
Living in a DSA yes/no | 1.51 |
0.129
| 0.91 | 0.765 | 1.08 |
0.791
| 0.82 | 0.531 |
1.74
|
0.036
| 1.20 | 0.543 |
Rural environment yes/no |
1.64
|
0.022
|
1.62
|
0.037
| 0.97 |
0.901
| 1.03 | 0.896 | 0.75 |
0.270
| 0.76 | 0.294 |
Child mental health status | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parent-reported | Child self-reported | |||||||||
SDQ total difficulties | SDQ Conduct Disorder | internalizing disorders | Internalizing disorder | |||||||
Model 1 | Model 2 | |||||||||
AOR | P > t | AOR | P > t | AOR | P > t | AOR | P > t | AOR | P > t | |
Boy/girl |
3.08
|
<0.001
|
1.98
|
0.001
| 1.03 | 0.880 | 0.82 | 0.197 | 0.81 | 0.179 |
Child age > =9 years/less than 9 years | 1.01 | 0.971 | 1.01 | 0.954 | 0.97 | 0.874 | 0.73 | 0.053 | 0.75 | 0.073 |
Number of children in household
| ||||||||||
single/2 or 3 | 1.57 | 0.130 | 1.08 | 0.782 | 0.61 | 0.125 | 1.39 | 0.097 | 1.43 | 0.075 |
more than 3/2 or 3 | 0.75 | 0.520 | 0.74 | 0.409 | 1.21 | 0.558 | 0.65 | 0.143 | 0.73 | 0.264 |
Income
| ||||||||||
medium/low | 1.00 | 0.995 | 0.72 | 0.236 | 1.35 | 0.278 | 0.95 | 0.821 | 0.97 | 0.892 |
high/low | 1.12 | 0.773 | 0.72 | 0.332 | 1.10 | 0.790 | 0.95 | 0.832 | 0.96 | 0.882 |
Education level
| ||||||||||
medium/low | 1.12 | 0.723 | 0.91 | 0.741 | 0.86 | 0.588 | 0.78 | 0.202 | 0.78 | 0.212 |
high/low | 0.64 | 0.199 | 1.13 | 0.667 | 0.72 | 0.250 |
0.48
|
0.001
|
0.47
|
0.001
|
At least one parent unemployed yes/no | 1.22 | 0.554 | 1.01 | 0.979 | 1.31 | 0.359 | 1.08 | 0.741 | 1.09 | 0.710 |
Mother psychological distress yes/no |
4.61
|
<0.001
|
2.93
|
<0.001
|
3.99
|
<0.001
| 1.16 | 0.483 | 1.13 | 0.569 |
Mother’s region of birth | ||||||||||
CA/Africa/Western | 1.01 | 0.985 | 1.19 | 0.685 | 1.19 | 0.748 | 0.84 | 0.658 | 1.41 | 0.393 |
Maghreb/Western | 1.55 | 0.337 | 1.74 | 0.153 | 0.62 | 0.327 | 0.58 | 0.146 | 0.92 | 0.813 |
Homogeneity of couple | ||||||||||
No/yes | 0.45 | 0.127 | 0.64 | 0.256 | 1.35 | 0.367 | 1.12 | 0.657 | 1.10 | 0.724 |
Missing/yes |
2.01
|
0.024
| 1.66 | 0.077 | 1.10 | 0.769 | 0.96 | 0.854 | 0.96 | 0.877 |
Caring | 1.42 | 0.251 |
2.36
|
0.001
| 0.98 | 0.954 | 0.96 | 0.871 | 0.94 | 0.801 |
Autonomy-promoting | 0.81 | 0.561 |
1.83
|
0.024
| 0.80 | 0.496 | 0.95 | 0.820 | 1.06 | 0.793 |
Punitive behavior |
3.73
|
<0.001
|
4.96
|
<0.001
| 0.94 | 0.855 | 1.43 | 0.084 |
1.74
|
0.012
|
“Region of birth x autonomy-promoting” interactions | ||||||||||
Caribean/Africa | 1.20 | 0.813 | ||||||||
Maghreb |
4.16
|
0.054
| ||||||||
“Region of birth x punitive” interactions | ||||||||||
Caribean/Africa | 1.74 | 0.501 |
0.19
|
0.034
| ||||||
Maghreb |
5.06
|
0.056
| 0.33 | 0.206 | ||||||
Living in a DSA yes/no | 1.38 | 0.400 | 0.71 | 0.357 | 1.39 | 0.326 |
1.95
|
0.007
|
2.04
|
0.004
|
Rural environment yes/no | 1.46 | 0.231 | 0.77 | 0.389 | 1.15 | 0.614 | 0.68 | 0.093 | 0.68 | 0.085 |