Background
Fetal growth restriction, as observed in intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and preeclampsia (PE), affects not only perinatal outcomes, but is also an important risk factor for developing diabetes, cardiovascular disease and other health problems in adulthood [
1‐
3]. Nutrient availability and placental transport capacity are key determinants of fetal growth [
4,
5]. Amino acid transport in particular is intimately linked to fetal growth [
6,
7]. Lower activities for several of the amino acid transporter (AAT) systems have been documented in the placenta of IUGR fetuses including System A [
8‐
10], System L [
11], and taurine transport [
12‐
14].
In vivo animal model studies also support the primary role of reduced amino acid transport activity in the development of IUGR [
15,
16]. The etiology of fetal growth restriction necessitates a better understanding of placental amino acid transport regulation.
Placental amino acid transport activity resides within the syncytiotrophoblast (ST) cells [
17,
18]. Efficient transport requires the coordination of both Na
+-dependent and Na
+-independent transporters. Sodium-dependent transporters, including System A (sodium-dependent neutral amino acid transporter 1 (SNAT1), −2, and −4/ SLC38A1,-2,-4) and System ASC (ASCT1/SLC1A4 and ASCT2/SLC1A5), are largely responsible for maintaining intracellular neutral amino acid substrate levels. The activity of System A in the microvillous membrane has been well described [
8,
10,
19]. Na
+-dependent ASCT2 expression has also been localized to placenta microvilli [
20]. In normal tissues and cancer cells ASCT2 is critical to cell growth and survival as its glutamine transport activity supports amino acid exchangers including LAT1 [
21‐
23]. However, there are no reports on ASCT2 activity relative to placenta function and fetal growth restriction. The sodium-independent transporters of System L (LAT1 and LAT2) exchange intracellular glutamine and other substrates for essential amino acids (EEAs) including Leucine and branched-chain amino acids (BCAA). LAT1 is expressed in the microvilli as a heterodimeric glycoprotein composed of the transporter-specific light chain LAT1/SLC7A5, and the common heavy chain 4F2hc/CD98/SLC3A2 [
17,
24]. The transport of branched-chain and EEAs has been shown to be affected in both IUGR (decreased) and LGA-associated placenta (increased) [
19].
While the relationship between changes in amino acid transporter activities and pathological fetal growth is well established, their regulation is still poorly understood. The mammalian Target of Rapamycin (mTOR) protein appears to be a key component of AAT regulation [
6,
25,
26]. mTOR is a Ser/Thr protein kinase which functions in diverse cell types, connecting growth factor signals with energy and nutrient levels, to control protein metabolism and cell growth [
27]. In the placenta, mTOR has been shown to affect the activities of the System A, System L, and taurine AAT [
25,
28]. Further
in vitro evidence ties mTOR activity to the sub-cellular localization of System A (SNAT2) and System L (LAT1) transporters [
26].
Several lines of evidence support an adaptive model of fetal nutrient transport by which transporter function is altered based upon nutrient availability and fetal demand. Under limiting conditions, transport activity is increased in mice and trophoblast cell cultures [
29,
30]. Detailed analysis of tumor cells, in which amino acid transport activity and growth must also be adapted to fit limiting nutrient conditions, found that mTOR responses to amino acid concentrations are dependent on ASCT2 and LAT1 transporters, and their substrates L-Glutamine and Leucine, respectively [
23,
31,
32]. The available evidence suggests that a similar system is present in the placenta ST, sensing fluctuations in nutrient availability and maintaining transport activities to achieve optimal fetal growth conditions [
33]. These observations point to the importance of System L, ASCT2, and mTOR in the placenta as they pertain to fetal growth pathologies.
Preeclampsia and IUGR often arise from the common defect in placental development of impaired spiral artery remodeling [
34,
35]. This results in altered blood flow, and possible exposure of the developing fetus to a limited oxygen and nutrient supply. Pre-pregnancy BMI and inadequate maternal weight-gain during pregnancy may also result in restricted nutrient supply, and are additional risk factors for fetal growth restriction [
36,
37]. We hypothesized that in all conditions predicted to cause limited amino acid availability to the placental/fetal unit, similar adaptive responses aimed at increasing transport capacity, including increased AAT protein levels, may be observed. In the present study we investigated if the expression of 4F2hc, LAT1, ASCT2, and mTOR proteins in the placenta is changed in potentially nutrition-restricted conditions including preeclampsia and IUGR, or if their expression may be associated with maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) or weight gain during pregnancy.
Methods
Study population and sample collection
Placental tissue collection was carried out with informed consent under the approval of the University of Occupational and Environmental Heath (UOEH) IRB Committee. Placentas were obtained primarily after caesarean delivery at full-term or pre-term from women with uncomplicated pregnancies giving birth to babies with normal birth weight (appropriate-for-gestational-age; AGA, full-term and pre-term control pregnancies), as well as from pregnancies complicated by IUGR or preeclampsia.
Preeclampsia (n = 10) was defined as gestational hypertension and proteinuria after 20 weeks gestation. Gestational hypertension was defined as new onset elevated maternal systolic blood pressure (BP) more than 140 mmHg or diastolic BP more than 90 mmHg. Proteinuria was defined as more than 300 mg protein in a 24 hour urine collection or more than 1+ on a catheterized urine specimen or more than 2+ on a voided specimen, or a random urinary protein/creatinine ratio of more than >0.3 [
38]. IUGR (n = 10) was defined by a birth weight below the 10
th percentile (small for gestational age, SGA) in an otherwise uncomplicated pregnancy. Birth weight centiles were based upon Japanese gender-specific fetal growth data (adjusted for gestational age). Eight of ten IUGR babies exhibited asymmetric growth profiles. Asymmetric growth usually signifies IUGR-affected growth in the third trimester, resulting in a disproportionately low birth weight or length in comparison with occipital frontal head circumference. However, asymmetric growth has no universally accepted formula. Babies were considered to have asymmetric growth when the percentiles were disproportionate, generally following the pattern of total weight before liner growth before head circumference (
i.e. weight centile < length centile < head centile). For these data, we defined “significantly less than” to mean plotting in nonadjacent percentile categories (<3rd, 3–5, 5–10, 10–25, 25–50, 50–75, 75–90, 90–95, 95–97, and > 97), wherein weight centile must be at least two categories below length and/or head circumference.
Table
1 shows the demographic data of case and control study subjects. Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (s.d.). The expected differences in blood pressure at delivery were observed among normal pregnancy, preeclampsia, and IUGR (systolic/diastolic: 121 ± 9/73 ± 9 mmHg, 162 ± 19/97 ± 10 mmHg, and 122 ± 24/77 ± 22 mmHg), and all were normotensive pregnancy before 20 weeks gestation. Gestational weeks at delivery of pre-term controls, preeclampsia and IUGR were about 5 weeks earlier compared to uncomplicated full term pregnancies. Infant birth weight centile was significantly lower in preeclampsia or IUGR compared to uncomplicated full term and preterm pregnancies. The incidence of maternal smoking was not different between groups. Caesarean section in uncomplicated pregnancy was due to repeat-caesarean section or breech presentation. A limited number of samples were obtained after vaginal delivery, particularly in the pre-term normal pregnancy group due to the limited number of available samples.
Table 1
Characteristic averages of pregnancy groups
Maternal age | 31.0 ± 6.4 | 31.0 ± 4.9 | 34.0 ± 4.3 | 31.6 ± 6.0 |
Maternal BMI (kg/m2) | 21.3 ± 6.6 | 20.0 ± 3.7 | 23.8 ± 5.0 | 17.8 ± 1.2 |
Percent nulliparous | 70 | 30 | 30 | 70 |
Blood pressure at delivery (mmHg) | | | | |
Systolic (mmHg) | 121 ± 9 | 116 ± 7 | 162 ± 19 a
| 122 ± 24 |
Diastolic (mmHg) | 73 ± 9 | 66 ± 10 | 97 ± 10c
| 77 ± 22d
|
Blood pressure <20 weeks GA | | | | |
Systolic (mmHg) | 118 ± 7 | 109 ± 6 | 141 ± 11 | 105 ± 21 |
Diastolic (mmHg) | 77 ± 11 | 59 ± 10 | 87 ± 6 | 64 ± 12 |
Gestational weeks at delivery | 39.2 ± 1.5 | 34.4 ± 0.7 | 33.6 ± 2.0a
| 34.5 ± 3.1a
|
Birth weight (g) | 2835 ± 435 | 1993 ± 236 | 1446 ± 333a
| 1465 ± 335a
|
Birth weight centile | 35.8 ± 25.1 | 30.4 ± 19.8 | 5.2 ± 7.3a
| 2.6 ± 3.6a
|
Placental weight (g) | 558 ± 141 | 448 ± 122 | 348 ± 91b
| 332 ± 82a
|
Smoking (%) | 0 | 10 | 0 | 10 |
Ceasarean delivery (%) | 90 | 30 | 80 | 60 |
The clinical characteristics for each newborn with IUGR or born to women with preeclampsia is presented in Table
2. Newborns 1 to 10 are normotensive IUGR-associated, and 11 to 20 are associated with preeclampsia. All but two infants (number 12 and 14) born to women with preeclampsia also fit the criteria of SGA. The rate of oligohydramnios was 30% in both preeclampsia and IUGR. The infant of patient number 5 in Table
2 exemplifies asymmetric growth. This infant has a birth weight centile of 1.4 (category < 3rd), length percentile < 3, and head circumference centile 10–25 (two categories greater than birth weight and length). Eight of ten IUGR babies, and six of the eight SGA babies in preeclampsia, exhibited asymmetric profiles.
Table 2
Clinical characteristics of IUGR and preeclampsia
1
|
-
| 0.3 | 0.0 | 10.1 | Asymmetrical |
2
|
-
| 9.3 | 3.8 | 41.2 | Asymmetrical |
3
|
-
| 9.2 | 42.0 | 78.0 | Asymmetrical |
4
|
+
| 1.3 | 2.3 | 19.3 | Asymmetrical |
5
|
-
| 1.4 | 2.4 | 11.0 | Asymmetrical |
6
|
-
| 1.4 | 13.9 | 12.5 | Asymmetrical |
7
|
-
| 0.0 | 0.6 | 0.6 | Symmetrical |
8
|
-
| 3.8 | 6.0 | 28.3 | Asymmetrical |
9
|
+
| 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.8 | Symmetrical |
10
|
+
| 0.0 | 0.0 | 8.2 | Asymmetrical |
11
|
+
| 7.1 | 14.0 | 35.1 | Asymmetrical |
12
|
-
| 16.1 | 65.2 | 33.8 | Symmetrical |
13
|
-
| 0.4 | 0.0 | 21.1 | Asymmetrical |
14
|
-
| 20.7 | 13.1 | 55.7 | Asymmetrical |
15
|
+
| 1.7 | 18.4 | 55.9 | Asymmetrical |
16
|
-
| 0.6 | 1.8 | 12.3 | Asymmetrical |
17
|
-
| 4.2 | 10.5 | 0.1 | Symmetrical |
18
|
-
| 0.6 | 8.2 | 3.1 | Symmetrical |
19
|
-
| 0.2 | 1.3 | 0.5 | Symmetrical |
20
|
+
| 0.4 | 0.0 | 19.1 | Asymmetrical |
Immunohistochemistry
Formalin fixed paraffin embedded placental tissue samples (1 sample per placenta, collected between the rim and point of chord insertion) were obtained from the tissue bank facility of the UOEH Pathology Department with IRB approval (full term pregnancy, n = 10; pre-term, n = 10; preeclampsia, n = 10; and IUGR, n = 10). Paraffin sections (3.5 μm) were incubated overnight at 37°C or 1 hr at 65°C, deparaffinized in xylenes and rehydrated in ethanol and water. Slides underwent antigen retrieval in citrate buffer, pH6.0, followed by peroxidase blocking (Block, Dako, Tokyo, Japan) before incubation with the appropriate primary Ab diluted in PBS, 1 hr, RT. Detection was performed using Envision HRP-conjugated secondary Ab and DAB color development system (DAKO) for consistent development time between samples. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) results were qualitatively estimated in a blinded fashion by two individuals. Chromogenic signal intensity was assigned a relative score of 0 (no signal), 1 (weak signal detected), 2 (moderate), and 3 (strong) [
39]. The scores of five fields of view were averaged for each slide. For each placenta sample and each antigen, two or three slides made from non-consecutive sections were stained and scored in independent IHC experiments.
Antibodies and chemicals
Primary antibodies recognized Cytokeratin7 (Sigma, St. Louis, MO, USA); 4F2hc and LAT1 (KEO20 and KEO23, respectively, Transgenic, Inc., Kobe, Japan); mTOR (ab2732, Abcam, Tokyo, Japan); and ASCT2/SLC1A5 (H-52, Santa Crus, CA, USA). All chemicals were purchased from Sigma unless noted.
Data presentation and statistics
The sample size (
n) is the number of different placentas representing each case or control group. Clinical characteristics data (Tables
1 and
2) were assessed by ANOVA. IHC scoring was assessed by t-test. Statistical significance was accepted at p < 0.05.
Author’s contributions
YA carried out immunohistochemistry experiments, blinded scoring, and statistical analysis, and participated in data interpretation, generating figures, writing and revising. DJA carried out immunohistochemistry experiments and blinded scoring, participated in data interpretation, generating figures, writing and revising. SA, MM and CT participated in sample collections and immunohistochemistry experiments. TH acquired funding and participated in experiment design, data interpretation, writing and revising. RS participated in analyzing and interpreting data, generating figures, writing and revising. TK acquired funding and participated in experiment design and data interpretation. MT participated in experiment design and data interpretation, writing and revising. ES acquired funding and participated in experiment design and data interpretation, writing and revising. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Competing interests
The authors have no competing interests to declare.