Introduction
Clinical Presentation
Diagnostic Criteria
Source | Developing country population | Criteria | Major features | Minor features | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hanifin and Rajka [28] | Indian hospitalized, pediatric patients [33] | ≥ 3 major PLUS ≥ 3 minor | Pruritus Typical morphology (flexural lichenification or linearity in adults, facial and extensor involvement in infants and children) Chronic or chronically relapsing dermatitis Personal or family history of atopy | Xerosis Ichthyosis, palmar hyperlinearity, or keratosis pilaris Immediate (type I) skin test reactivity Elevated serum IgE level Early age of onset Tendency toward cutaneous infections or impaired cell-mediated immunity Tendency toward nonspecific hand/foot dermatitis Nipple eczema Cheilitis Recurrent conjunctivitis Dennie-Morgan infraorbital folds Keratoconus | Anterior subcapsular cataracts Orbital darkening Facial pallor or erythema Pityriasis alba Anterior neck folds Itch when sweating Intolerance to wool and lipid solvents Perifollicular accentuation Food intolerance Course influenced by environmental/emotional factors White dermographism or delayed blanch |
UK Working Party [29] | Major PLUS ≥ 3 minor | Itchy skin condition (or parental report of scratching or rubbing in a child) | History of flexural involvement (including cheeks in children < 10 years) Personal history of asthma or hay fever (or history of atopy in first-degree relative in children < 4 years) History of a general dry skin in last year Visible flexural eczema (or eczema involving the cheeks/forehead and extensor surfaces in children aged < 4 years) Onset < 2 years of age (not used for child aged < 4 years) | ||
Liu et al. [22] | Chinese adults and adolescents | Major PLUS ≥ 1 minor | Persistent or recurrent symmetrical dermatitis for > 6 months | Personal or family (first-, second-, or third-degree relative) history of atopy Elevated total serum IgE level, positive allergen-specific IgE, or eosinophilia | |
Chinese patients of all ages | Both major ~ OR ~ First major PLUS ≥ 3 minor | Chronic or chronically relapsing pruritic dermatitis (inflammatory eczematous lesions on face and extensor surfaces in infants/children, lichenification of flexural and extensor surfaces in adolescents/adults) Personal or family history of atopy | Onset < 12 years of age Xerosis, ichthyosis, or palmar hyperlinearity Allergic conjunctivitis, food intolerance, immediate skin test reactivity, eosinophilia, or elevated serum IgE level Tendency toward cutaneous infections or impaired cell-mediated immunity Facial pallor, white dermographism, or delayed blanch Periorbital darkening, perifollicular accentuation, or tendency toward nonspecific hand/foot dermatitis | ||
Thai adolescents and adults aged ≥ 13 years | Major PLUS ≥ 2 minor | History of flexural dermatitis | Duration > 6 months Visible flexural dermatitis Visible dry skin | ||
Korean Atopic Dermatitis Association [39] | Korean children aged 4–12 years | Both major ~ OR ~ 1 major PLUS ≥ 4 minor | Relapsing–remitting itchy rash in past 12 months Itchy rash on antecubital/popliteal fossae in past 12 months | Personal or family (father, mother, brothers, or sisters) history of atopy Intermittent itch, wrinkles, or darkening around the eyes in past 12 months Intermittent itch or oozing around the ears in past 12 months Intermittent chapping or oozing around the lips in past 12 months Intermittent itch, thickening, or darkening around the neck in past 12 months Intermittent itch, oozing, or thickening in infragluteal folds in past 12 months Intermittent itch or oozing around wrist/ankle joints in past 12 months Unusually dry skin in past 12 months Itch when sweating in past 12 months | |
South African Childhood Atopic Eczema Working Group [40] | South African children | Major PLUS ≥ 3 minor | Pruritus | Flexural dermatitis Previous flexural dermatitis Dry skin Other atopic disease Onset < 2 years of age |
Treatment Guidelines
Source | Step-up therapy | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Basic treatment | First line | Second line | Third line | |
Asia–Pacific [42] | Emollients Trigger avoidance | TCI Proactive/intermittent TCS | TCS TCI | Rescue therapy (TCS, wraps/soaks, antibiotics) |
Taiwan [44] | Emollients Trigger avoidance Patient education Rescue therapy (TCS, antihistamines) | TCI Proactive/intermittent TCS NB-UVB phototherapy | Short-term oral corticosteroid NB-UVB/UVA1 phototherapy Infection control | Systemic immunosuppressant Potent TCS Phototherapy Alternative medicine Psychotherapeutic approach |
Singapore [45] | Gentle skin care Emollients | Mild TCS TCI | Moderate TCS Antimicrobials for secondary skin infections Wet dressings | Potent TCS Antimicrobials Phototherapy Systemic immunosuppressant |
Emollients Trigger avoidance Patient education Proactive treatment for patients with persistent/frequent flares (intermittent TCI/TCS, psychologic support) | TCI TCS Antihistamines | Wet dressings Infection control | Systemic immunosuppressant Short-term oral corticosteroid Phototherapy Allergen-specific immunotherapy Biologics | |
Latin America [52] | Skin care Emollients Irritant avoidance Proactive treatment as needed If patient is sensitized (trigger avoidance, exclusion diet) | TCS TCI If patient has allergic sensitization (allergen-specific immunotherapy) | Antihistamines Oral corticosteroid Phototherapy Cyclosporin | Other oral immunosuppressants |
South Africa [56] | Emollients Appropriate general measures Patient education | TCS (if not effective or contraindicated, TCI is alternative) | Proactive/long-term TCI Sedating antihistamines Rescue therapy (potent TCS) | Potent TCS Oral corticosteroid Phototherapy Systemic immunosuppressant Psychotherapeutic intervention |
Middle East [58] | Emollients Patient education Trigger avoidance | Proactive TCI TCS for flares |
Guideline Adherence/Pharmacologic Treatment Utilization
Utilization of Traditional/Herbal Remedies
Challenges in AD Management
TCS | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hydrocortisone | Desonide | Mometasone furoate | Fluticasone propionate | Triamcinolone acetonide | Betamethasone valerate | Betamethasone dipropionate | Clobetasol propionate | |
East Asia | ||||||||
China [89] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||||
Hong Kong [90] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Indonesia [91] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Malaysia [92] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Philippines [93] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
Singapore [94] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
South Korea [95] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
Taiwan [96] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
Thailand [97] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Vietnam [98] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
South Asia | ||||||||
Bangladesh [99] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
India [100] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
Pakistan [101] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
Latin America | ||||||||
Argentina [102] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Brazil [103] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Chile [104] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
Colombia [105] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Mexico [106] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
Peru [107] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
Venezuela [108] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
Africa | ||||||||
Egypt [109] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Morocco [110] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Nigeria [111] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||||
South Africa [112] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||||
Tunisia [113] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
Middle East | ||||||||
Jordan [114] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
Lebanon [115] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
Oman [116] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Qatar [117] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Saudi Arabia [118] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
Turkey [119] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
United Arab Emirates [120] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
TCIs | Topical PDE4 inhibitors | Systemic immunosuppressants | Biologics | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pimecrolimus | Tacrolimus | Crisaborole | Methotrexate | Cyclosporine | Dupilumab | |
East Asia | ||||||
China [89] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Hong Kong [90] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Indonesia [91] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Malaysia [92] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Philippines [93] | ✓ | |||||
Singapore [94] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
South Korea [95] | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
Taiwan [96] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
Thailand [97] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Vietnam [98] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
South Asia | ||||||
Bangladesh [99] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
India [100] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
Pakistan [101] | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
Latin America | ||||||
Argentina [102] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Brazil [103] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
Chile [104] | ✓ | |||||
Colombia [105] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Mexico [106] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
Peru [107] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
Venezuela [108] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Africa | ||||||
Egypt [109] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Morocco [110] | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
Nigeria [111] | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
South Africa [112] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
Tunisia [113] | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
Middle East | ||||||
Jordan [114] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Lebanon [115] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Oman [116] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Qatar [117] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
Saudi Arabia [118] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Turkey [119] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
United Arab Emirates [120] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |