Background
Hepatocellular adenomas (HCA) are rare benign liver tumors with the capacity to undergo malignant transformation. Epidemiologic studies report the prevalence of HCA is approximately 3–4 cases per 100,000 people in Europe and North America, [
1] and lower in Asian countries [
2]. The highest prevalence is described in females taking oral contraceptives, but other risk factors, such as anabolic steroid use, obesity and metabolic syndrome are described [
2‐
5]. Inherited syndromes such as glycogenosis type 1, maturity-onset diabetes of the young type 3 (MODY3), and familial adenomatous polyposis have also been linked to the development of HCA [
3,
5,
6]. HCA can be solitary or multiple, with “liver adenomatosis” defined as presence of multiple HCA (>10) of any size involving all liver segments [
7]. The majority of HCA are benign and some regress without surgical intervention. However, serious complications can occur. Notably, hemorrhage is described in up to one fourth of patients, mainly associated with large (>5 cm) lesions. Furthermore, 9 % of HCA may transform into hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) with risk factors including male sex, androgen use, large tumors (>5 cm) and β-catenin-mutated HCA [
5]. In these complicated cases, early surgical removal may improve patient outcomes [
8,
9]. Therefore, there is interest in developing diagnostics to preemptively identify high-risk cases and guide clinical management. Imaging studies may identify a proportion of HCA with relatively high sensitivities and specificities, but some cannot be accurately differentiated from HCC [
10,
11]. In these cases, histological evaluation becomes essential for diagnosis.
In the last decade, four subtypes of HCA have been identified based on genotype-phenotype analyses [
12]. Inactivating mutations in the
HNF1A (
TCF1) gene causing loss of hepatocyte nuclear factor 1α (HNF-1α) expression define H-HCA, which are characterized histologically by marked steatosis and bland hepatocyte cytology [
12,
13]. A second subtype, with activating mutations of β-catenin (b-HCA), is associated with an increased risk of malignant transformation into HCC [
9,
12,
14‐
16]. A third subtype (IHCA) is marked by inflammatory infiltrates or telangiectatic features by histology with increased serum amyloid A (SAA) and C reactive protein (CRP) expression by IHC. IHCA has been linked with activating mutations in several genes including
IL6ST, FRK, STAT3, JAK1, and
GNAS [
17,
18]
. Whole exome sequencing has also demonstrated that there is overlap between b-HCA and IHCA in some adenomas that harbor mutations in both the β-catenin and
IL6ST genes [
18]. Furthermore, in addition to previously reported mutations in exon 3, a smaller proportion of b-HCA carry mutations in exons 7 and 8 of
CTNNB1; however no increased risk of malignant transformation was noted in these patients [
18]. Finally, a small proportion of HCA does not appear to fall into any of the above categories and were considered unclassifiable by current testing approaches (UHCA).
Based on this classification, subtyping of HCA by immunohistochemistry has been used with some success [
19]. Briefly, loss of liver fatty-acid binding protein (LFABP) staining results from
HNF-1A mutation in H-HCA, and increased SAA immunoreactivity serves as a marker for IHCA. Upregulation of a downstream
CTNNB1 target gene, glutamine synthase (GS), is seen in b-HCA, as well as nuclear β-catenin staining. It has been postulated that the immunophenotypic subtypes closely parallel specific histologic features and molecular alterations, but limitations have been observed by numerous studies and detailed studies correlating morphology, immunohistochemical profile and mutation analysis are lacking [
3,
12,
20,
21]. The aim of our study was to apply the HCA classification system based on histologic features and immunohistochemical profiles and correlate the findings with molecular analysis.
Methods
Case selection and histopathological evaluation
HCA cases diagnosed between January 1994 and December 2012 were retrieved from our pathology department archives. For resection specimens, representative sections of tumor and non-tumorous liver were reviewed for histological features. The presence of multiple adenomas (2 or more tumors) had been previously assessed by gross organ review and representative sections of each adenoma were examined by microscopy. For biopsies, only tumor tissue was available for review and radiology reports were reviewed to determine the presence of multiple adenomas. Retrospective chart reviews were performed to collect additional demographic data including age, gender, related medical history and clinical follow-up. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Columbia University Medical Center.
Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained slides, reticulin and Masson’s trichrome stains as well as immunohistochemical studies (IHC) were used to evaluate general morphologic and immunophenotypic features. All cases were reviewed by 3 pathologists (MAS, EM and FB). Tumor characteristics evaluated on routine H&E stained slides included: steatosis (mild = 0–33 %; moderate = 33–66 %; marked= > 66 % of the lesion), inflammation, sinusoidal dilatation (telangiectasia), ductular proliferation, nuclear atypia (nuclear pleomorphism, increased nuclear:cytoplasmic ratio) and architectural atypia (gland-like or acinar growth). Atypia was defined as the presence of any of the following: (1) nuclear atypia, (2) any degree of architectural atypia, and/or (3) focal loss of reticulin staining.
Immunohistochemistry
Immunohistochemistry for LFABP (ABCAM, Cambridge, UK, 1:100 dilution), SAA (ABCAM, Cambridge, UK, 1:100 dilution), β-catenin (BD Bioscience, San Jose, CA, 1:50 dilution) and GS (Millipore, Billerica, MA, 1:2000) was performed in all cases using standard laboratory techniques in the Ventana Benchmark Ultra platform (Tucson, AZ, USA). GS IHC was scored as 0 (negative, or weak perivascular staining in <10 % of the tumor), 1+ (perivascular staining or pseudo-maplike pattern of >10 % of the tumor), and 2+ (diffuse strong staining), as previously described [
19]. Pseudo-maplike GS pattern has been previously described as interconnected clusters of hepatocytes beyond perivascular lesions, connected by inconspicuous bands of positive hepatocytes [
22]. β-catenin IHC was graded as 0 (membranous staining) or 1 (nuclear staining in any percentage of tumor cells). LFABP and SAA stains were scored from 0 to 2+ (Score of 0 = negative or <10 % staining, 1 + = 10–50 % staining, and 2+ = >50 % positive staining). In most cases, we used adjacent non-tumoral liver as internal negative controls, including negative SAA staining, membranous β-catenin pattern, and normal centrilobular GS positivity. CD34 immunohistochemical stains (DAKO, Carpinteria, CA, 1:200) were performed on atypical cases to evaluate for the presence of sinusoidal capillarization, as previously described [
23]. In select cases, glypican-3 (Cell Marque, Rocklin, CA, 1:100) immunohistochemistry was also performed.
Molecular analysis
Multiplex targeted DNA next generation sequencing was performed in 18 of 26 cases. DNA was extracted from frozen and/or formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumor tissue using QIAamp DNA Mini Kit (QIAGEN, Germany) according to manufacturer’s specifications. DNA was quantitated by fluorometry with the Invitrogen Qubit fluorometer and Quant-iT dsDNA BR Assay Kit (Life Sciences, Carlsbad, CA), as recommended by the manufacturer. The samples were sequenced using the TruSeq Amplicon Cancer Panel (MiSeq system, Illumina, CA), which covers 225 amplicons within 48 cancer-related genes, including 2 amplicons corresponding to exons 3 and 4 of HNF1A gene, and one amplicon representing exon 3 of CTNNB1 gene.
Whole exome sequencing on an expanded panel of 467 tumor-specific genes, including HNF1A, CTNNB1 (all exons), IL6ST, STAT3, GNAS, and JAK1, was performed in a subset of cases. This test requires higher amount of DNA and could only be performed in 11 cases with sufficient DNA (cases 2–4, 6–10, 13, 14 and 26). Target capture and enrichment were performed with the SureSelect Hybrid Capture system (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA) using custom probes. cDNA Libraries were then quantified using qPCR, diluted to 2nM and pooled for analysis on Illumina HiSeq 2500 using Illumina TruSeq v3 chemistry (Illumina, San Diego, CA).
Data deconvolution was performed using CASAVA Software (Illumina, CA). Files meeting QC metrics were used for mapping and variant calling using NextGENe Software (Softgenetics, State College, PA). Reads were aligned to the hg19 reference genome. Variant calls with allele prevalence >1 % in the 1000 Genome Project, <3 variant reads, ambiguous alignments, quality score <10, and allele frequency <10 % were excluded. Variants were cross referenced with COSMIC, PROVEAN, and SIFT prediction tools [
24].
Statistical analysis
For categorical variables, Fisher’s exact test was used. One-way Kruskal-Wallis test was used for nonparametric data, including immunohistochemical scoring. Continuous variables were compared using a two-tailed student t-test or one-way ANOVA, as appropriate. P <0.05 was regarded as statistically significant.
Discussion
Hepatocellular adenomas have a small risk of malignant transformation with estimated rates of less than 5 % [
3,
25‐
27]. Recent advances in the morphologic and molecular classification of HCA identified b-HCA as the subtype most commonly associated to malignant transformation. This finding warrants the use of robust and reliable approaches to identify such tumors [
12,
18]. In particular, the status of
CTNNB1 mutations in HCA may offer crucial information regarding management of some of these patients.
The current HCA classification scheme is based on the tumor’s morphologic and immunohistochemical characteristics and was originally validated with
CTNNB1 and
HNF1A gene sequencing [
28]. More recently, high-throughput sequencing of a large HCA cohort led to the discovery of novel genetic alterations, [
17,
18] including new hot-spots in
CTNNB1 gene in the b-HCA subtype, and defects in the IL-6/JAK/STAT3 pathway in IHCA. Our study is one of the first to use a comprehensive targeted next-generation sequencing panel to evaluate the mutational status of HCA and correlate with immunohistochemistry results.
As expected, our study demonstrated
HNF1A gene mutations in all analyzed H-HCA cases, confirming high accuracy of this marker in the diagnosis of H-HCA. However, our results suggest limited reliability of GS and β-catenin immunohistochemistry in predicting β-catenin mutations. The utility of both markers has been challenged by other researchers [
10,
21,
22,
29,
30]. Lagana
et al. showed strong GS positivity in over 50 % of HCA and Joseph
et al. described patchy to diffuse GS staining in 23 % of IHCA, but no correlation with molecular studies were available in these studies [
22]. In the present study, seven of 12 GS-positive cases displayed faint perivascular staining or heterogeneous positivity. Further molecular evaluation performed in 5 tumors failed to demonstrate
CTNNB1 alterations in 4 cases, one of which was a biopsy specimen (case 13). These somewhat controversial staining patterns and their correlation with β-catenin activation have not been fully characterized and may be a result of localized metabolic alterations within the tumor [
20‐
22,
31].
In addition, we identified strong GS positivity in four β-catenin wild-type tumors, including one H-HCA. We speculate whether these tumors may have activation of an alternative pathway resulting in GS expression. Berry
et al. described strong GS staining in a peliotic HCA and suggested that vascular flow alterations and hepatic parenchymal remodeling may explain increased GS expression [
31,
32].
In our study, GS staining failed to identify 1 of 2 confirmed
CTNNB1-mutated HCA. Low GS expression in b-HCA has been previously reported in HCA carrying the Ser45Pro mutation [
33]. Interestingly, the same β-catenin mutation has been described in HCC and was not associated with nuclear β-catenin staining, suggesting that some
CTNNB1 alterations may not disrupt GS and β-catenin expression patterns [
34]. None of the 11 cases evaluated by whole-exome sequencing carried large
CTNNB1 deletions or mutations in exons 7 or 8, the latter described in a minority of bHCA and previously shown to activate β-catenin in HCC cell lines [
18]. Caution is warranted in such cases as they show weak and patchy GS staining and lack nuclear staining of β-catenin [
18].
Following molecular analysis, four tumors were reclassified. One case phenotypically classified as IHCA was reclassified as bIHCA because it carried both a β-catenin mutation and an
IL6ST alteration. Three cases initially categorized as b-HCA lacked
CTNNB1 gene alterations. Two of them were re-subtyped as IHCA following identification of
IL6ST gene alterations, all of which previously described in IHCA [
17,
35]. The remaining case carried no mutations in
HNF1A or any of the IHCA-related genes. In this challenging case, the diagnosis of a β-catenin-activated HCA is favored, but the lack of molecular evidence for
CTNNB1 alterations suggests alternative mechanisms of β-catenin activation and GS overexpression in the tumor [
36]. This adenoma was originally resected from a 7-year-old patient with no known medical conditions, who remains disease-free after over 13 years of her surgery. HCA occurrence in preadolescence is extremely rare and little is known about the natural history and pathogenesis of such lesions. Six adenomas immunophenotypically compatible with IHCA lacked identifiable mutations in IHCA-associated genes, a finding previously described by others [
18,
27].
A large percentage of HCA showed atypical features (30.8 %) but no correlation with a specific HCA type was identified. Other histological features, such as mild steatosis and telangiectasia, were not reliable predictors of HCA subtype as defined by IHC and molecular analysis. In addition, we identified significant immunohistochemical overlap between the b-HCA and IHCA subtypes. Some of these “overlap” lesions, with immunohistochemical features of both IHCA and b-HCA, have been previously described as carrying
CTNNB1 activating mutations [
18]. Both β-catenin-mutated cases showed SAA staining and atypical histological features, but alterations in the inflammatory pathway were only present in one case.
There is a strong association between b-HCA and hepatocellular carcinoma at the time of diagnosis or during follow-up [
19]. In our study, none of our cases progressed to HCC. One possible explanation is the fact that our group consisted predominantly of females on oral contraceptives, features generally associated with lower risk of malignant transformation [
18]. Interestingly, one b-HCA with atypia harbored a
CTNNB1 exon 3 deletion (Gly38_Thr40del) and a
TP53 mutation (Ile251Phe), the latter located in a known ‘hotspot’ for cancer-related alterations and previously described in HCC [
37]. For the purposes of this study, we favor a very well-differentiated HCC arising from b-HCA. Evason
et al. described HCC-related genetic alterations in β-catenin-activated adenomas suggesting that some of these lesions more likely represent low-grade hepatocellular carcinomas [
38]. No other HCC-related driver mutations were identified in our study set.
Immunohistochemistry remains the mainstay for HCA classification due to its relative reliability and rapid turnaround time, especially when differentiating HCA from other lesions, such as focal nodular hyperplasia and hepatocellular carcinoma [
22,
39]. However, given the inherent variability in GS staining and the low sensitivity of β-catenin IHC, we believe that molecular testing should be used in all HCA cases with equivocal staining patterns, especially in high-risk patients. Our findings are limited by the small sample size and must to be confirmed by a systematic review of a larger number of well-characterized HCA including correlation of each immunohistochemical pattern with mutational profiles detected by molecular analysis.
Competing interests
The authors have no competing interests to disclose. Funding was provided by the Department of Pathology and Cell Biology at Columbia University.
Authors’ contributions
MS, EM and FB designed the study. EM assembled the clinical database. EM, AKG, FB and MS reviewed the cases and the immunohistochemistry. AKG prepared DNA samples for next-generation sequencing. MS, and EM analyzed sequencing results. EM, MS and FB analyzed remaining data and wrote the paper. AS, RKM, JHL, SML, HR and ARS provided manuscript critiques. All authors approved the final version.