W′ reconstitution
As might be expected participants with the largest
W′ had the greatest absolute reconstitution after 2 min of recovery, (Fig.
3a). This is in keeping with previous studies demonstrating an exponential recovery of
W′ as a function of
W′ (Skiba et al.
2015; Vinetti et al.
2017). However, when expressed as a percentage of
W′ recovery, this relationship disappeared in the trained group and was negative in the untrained group, i.e., those with the highest
W′ reconstituted the smallest fractional of
W′ during recovery (Fig.
3). This is similarly expressed within the exponential mathematical function describing
W′ reconstitution kinetics by the positive relationships between τ and
W′, such a moderating effect of
W′ on its reconstitution suggests that
W′ reconstitution kinetics are a factor of both time and
W′, supporting their inclusion in the
W′ balance model by Skiba et al. (
2012). The present data, however, extend this to indicate independent effects of aerobic fitness on
W′ reconstitution kinetics (Table
3). Moreover, a reduction in the reconstitution rate of
W′ with successive bouts of severe intensity exercise, presumably a feature of the fatigue process, is also not accounted for in the
W′ balance model. However, such a phenomenon is evidenced by ∆
W′
rec being significantly greater than zero. In the trained subset those with the greatest
W′
rec1 had the smallest ∆
W′
rec (i.e., had the smallest fatiguing effect on
W′ reconstitution), which in turn was strongly related to CP and
V̇O
2max and consequently to aerobic fitness (see Table
3). This reduction in the fatiguing effect with higher aerobic fitness is similar to that seen during repeated sprints (Tomlin and Wenger
2001). The influence of aerobic fitness on exercise performance would therefore seem to extend to recovery, a quality not evident in the active but not cycle trained subset in the present study.
The rate of
W′ reconstitution has been associated with the restoration of PCr (Chidnok et al.
2013b), which in turn appears to be dependent on oxygen availability (Haseler et al.
1999). In the present study EPOC and HR recovery were both strongly related to
W′
rec1 and ∆
W′
rec, at least in the trained subset (see Table
5). The former may be reflective of performance on the preceding task (i.e., high CP and
V̇O
2max) and the latter is also indicative of high aerobic fitness (Darr et al.
1988). It is possible therefore that the effects of high aerobic fitness extends to improved availability of oxygen during the recovery process. Indeed, as seen in Fig.
4j those with the largest absolute difference in HR following one minute of recovery maintained their
W′ reconstitution in the final recovery period (i.e., reduced ∆
W′
rec).
A novel outcome of this investigation was the observation of inverse relationships shown in Fig.
4e, f between age and
W′ reconstitution, suggesting that for trained cyclists, advancing age both slows reconstitution and, in particular, exacerbates the slowing of the rate of
W′ reconstitution that occurs following repeated maximal exercise. This effect may have been confounded by reductions in training volume and thus aerobic fitness with ageing. Indeed, decreases in endurance performance with ageing can be partly mitigated by maintaining training volume (Reaburn and Dascombe
2008). Training volume was inversely related to ∆
W′
rec, though not with
W′
rec1, in the present study and there were inverse correlations between age and CP (
r = − 0.49) and training volume (
r = − 0.61). Nevertheless, the strength of the relationship between age and ∆
W′
rec indicates that ageing may exert an independent effect on the capacity to reconstitute
W′ following recovery from repeated sever intensity bouts of exercise.
The difference in
V̇O
2 at CP and
V̇O
2max represents exercise intensities above CP which elicit the development of the
V̇O
2 slow component until
V̇O
2max is attained (Murgatroyd et al.
2011), the extent of which is also associated with the magnitude of
W′ (Simpson et al.
2015). Similarly, the present study extends that relationship to absolute
W′ reconstitution but, found no association with the maintenance of
W′ reconstitution. That τ was only related to the difference in
V̇O
2 at CP and
V̇O
2max in the untrained subset may be explained by the multi-faceted aspects of aerobic fitness in the trained group and their relatively high proportion of
V̇O
2max at CP.
For the whole group and both subsets, body mass was unrelated to
W′ reconstitution or ∆
W′
rec, thus providing no justification for normalising these measures per kilogram in the present study as has been suggested recently (Kordi et al.
2018). Whilst body mass itself was unrelated, body composition in terms of fat mass (but not lean mass) and sum of skinfolds was inversely related to
W′ reconstitution without affecting the ∆
W′
rec. Blood flow to adipose tissue adjacent to exercising muscle has been shown to increase during exercise (Heinonen et al.
2012), raising the possibility that competing demands for blood flow could prove detrimental to
W′ reconstitution, however further research is warranted to confirm this.
CP and W′
As indicated above, increasing age appeared to have a deleterious effect on some performance measures, particularly among the trained subset. The effects of age on the decline in both
V̇O
2max and lactate threshold in the trained population are well established (Tanaka and Seals
2008), reflecting the decline in CP observed in the present study. Maintaining training volume and intensity can go some way to mitigate the aerobic decline with advancing age (Tanaka and Seals
2008) and as the present study suggests, training volume itself is strongly associated with CP.
Body mass has been shown to be a determinant of CP in untrained participants (van der Vaart et al.
2014), and whilst the current study reinforces this assertion in a non-cycle trained active population, the relationship did not extend to the cycle trained participants. Whilst body mass itself was unrelated to
W′, both body composition in terms of fat mass (but not lean mass) and sum of skinfolds was negatively associated with
W′. Interestingly, these body composition relationships were consistent across the whole group and subsets indicating that the connections between
W′ and fat mass are independent of cycle-specific training. In contrast to previous studies (Byrd et al.
2017; Miura et al.
2002), thigh anthropometrics showed no associations with
W′ or its reconstitution. Yet, unlike the previous studies few of the current participants undertook regular strength training. It has been shown that cross sectional area of type I muscle fibres correlates with CP in endurance athletes (Mitchell et al.
2018) supporting the anthropometric correlates in the present study, and indicating that hypertrophy of different fibre types due to strength or endurance training is likely to be a determinant of
W′ and CP respectively.