Background
Objectives
Methods
Study design
Data collection
EQ-5D-5L
Socio-demographic characteristics
Data analysis
Sample | Total | Males | Females |
---|---|---|---|
N = 2,908 |
n = 1,422 |
n = 1,486 | |
Age, mean (SD) | 46.3 (18.9) | 45.7 (18.6) | 47.0 (19.1) |
Age category, years, % | |||
15–24 | 15.9 | 16.7 | 15.2 |
25–34 | 15.4 | 15.8 | 15.1 |
35–44 | 16.5 | 16.8 | 16.3 |
45–54 | 17.2 | 17.4 | 17.0 |
55–64 | 15.2 | 15.3 | 15.2 |
65–74 | 11.9 | 10.8 | 13.0 |
75+ | 7.8 | 7.3 | 8.2 |
Gender, % female | 51.1 | ||
Education attainment, % | |||
Left school at ≤15 years of age | 9.1 | 6.6 | 11.5 |
Left school >15 years of age | 21.5 | 19.0 | 24.0 |
Trade, apprenticeship, certificate, diploma | 36.5 | 42.5 | 30.7 |
Degree or higher | 22.4 | 21.1 | 23.6 |
Still studying | 10.2 | 10.2 | 10.1 |
Not stated | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.1 |
Area of residence, % | |||
Metropolitan | 74.4 | 75.5 | 73.6 |
Regional | 25.6 | 24.5 | 26.4 |
Country of birth, % | |||
Australia | 73.5 | 74.1 | 72.9 |
Europe | 15.8 | 15.2 | 16.4 |
Asia | 7.1 | 7.7 | 6.4 |
Other | 3.5 | 2.7 | 4.2 |
Not stated | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 |
Marital status, % | |||
Married/De Facto | 61.5 | 63.4 | 59.9 |
Never Married | 24.7 | 27.7 | 21.8 |
Separated/divorced | 9.1 | 6.6 | 11.4 |
Widowed | 4.6 | 2.2 | 6.8 |
Not stated | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 |
Employment status, % | |||
Full or part time | 55.6 | 62.8 | 48.6 |
Unemployed | 3.3 | 3.2 | 3.4 |
Not in the labour force | 41.1 | 33.9 | 47.8 |
Home Duties | 5.5 | 0.4 | 10.4 |
Retired | 20.4 | 18.0 | 22.7 |
Student | 9.5 | 9.2 | 9.8 |
Not working due to work-related injury or disability | 4.1 | 4.7 | 3.4 |
Other | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.5 |
Not stated | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 |
Annual household income, % | |||
Up to $20,000 | 6.0 | 4.1 | 7.9 |
$20,001–$40,000 | 12.8 | 11.2 | 14.4 |
$40,001–$80,000 | 19.3 | 19.7 | 19.0 |
$80,001–$120,000 | 15.1 | 16.2 | 14.0 |
$120,001+ | 20.1 | 23.8 | 16.6 |
Not stated | 26.7 | 25.0 | 28.2 |
Results
Participants
Main results
Age category, years | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dimension | Total N = 2,908 | 15–24
n = 464 | 25–34
n = 449 | 35–44
n = 480 | 45–54
n = 499 | 55–64
n = 443 | 65–74
n = 346 | 75+
n = 226 |
Mobility | ||||||||
No problems | 74.3 | 93.1 | 89.3 | 82.9 | 73.4 | 63.9 | 54.6 | 40.3 |
Slight | 14.9 | 4.1 | 8.0 | 10.8 | 15.0 | 22.6 | 24.9 | 29.2 |
Moderate | 7.9 | 2.4 | 1.6 | 4.4 | 8.4 | 10.6 | 14.2 | 23.0 |
Severe | 2.6 | 0 | 0.9 | 1.7 | 3.0 | 2.9 | 6.1 | 5.8 |
Extreme | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0 | 0.3 | 1.8 |
Self-care | ||||||||
No problems | 95.4 | 98.5 | 99.3 | 96.9 | 95.4 | 94.4 | 90.8 | 87.1 |
Slight | 3.4 | 1.3 | 0.2 | 2.5 | 3.8 | 3.8 | 6.9 | 8.9 |
Moderate | 0.9 | 0 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 1.1 | 2.0 | 3.1 |
Severe | 0.3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0 | 0.9 |
Extreme | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0 |
Usual activities | ||||||||
No problems | 82.7 | 94.4 | 94.0 | 87.8 | 78.8 | 78.6 | 72.3 | 56.6 |
Slight | 10.2 | 5.0 | 4.2 | 8.3 | 12.2 | 12.8 | 13.6 | 22.1 |
Moderate | 5.0 | 0.4 | 0.9 | 2.9 | 6.0 | 6.1 | 9.8 | 15.5 |
Severe | 1.6 | 0 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 2.6 | 1.8 | 2.9 | 4.4 |
Extreme | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.7 | 1.4 | 1.3 |
Pain/Discomfort | ||||||||
No pain | 55.6 | 80.8 | 70.8 | 62.7 | 46.9 | 41.1 | 40.2 | 29.6 |
Slight | 29.2 | 16.8 | 23.6 | 26.0 | 34.5 | 36.8 | 34.7 | 38.1 |
Moderate | 11.9 | 2.4 | 4.9 | 7.7 | 13.8 | 17.8 | 20.2 | 26.1 |
Severe | 2.7 | 0 | 0.4 | 2.7 | 4.0 | 3.4 | 4.3 | 5.8 |
Extreme | 0.6 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.4 |
Anxiety/Depression | ||||||||
No problems | 75.3 | 77.5 | 81.3 | 73.6 | 70.1 | 75.7 | 76.0 | 73.0 |
Slight | 16.3 | 14.7 | 11.4 | 16.6 | 19.4 | 16.7 | 16.2 | 20.8 |
Moderate | 6.2 | 5.8 | 5.6 | 7.3 | 6.4 | 5.9 | 6.9 | 4.9 |
Severe | 1.6 | 1.3 | 1.8 | 1.7 | 3.0 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 1.3 |
Extreme | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 0.9 | 0.3 | 0 |
Total | Males | Females | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable |
n
| mean (SD) |
n
| mean (SD) |
n
| mean (SD) |
All | 2908 | 0.91 (0.14) | 1422 | 0.92 (0.13) | 1486 | 0.90 (0.14) |
Z = -3.42, p = 0.001 | ||||||
Age category, years | ||||||
15–24 | 464 | 0.96 (0.08) | 238 | 0.96 (0.07) | 226 | 0.95 (0.08) |
25–34 | 449 | 0.95 (0.10) | 225 | 0.95 (0.10) | 224 | 0.95 (0.11) |
35–44 | 480 | 0.92 (0.13) | 238 | 0.93 (0.12) | 241 | 0.91 (0.13) |
45–54 | 499 | 0.89 (0.16) | 247 | 0.90 (0.16) | 253 | 0.87 (0.16) |
55–64 | 443 | 0.89 (0.15) | 217 | 0.90 (0.14) | 226 | 0.88 (0.15) |
65–74 | 346 | 0.87 (0.16) | 153 | 0.87 (0.16) | 193 | 0.87 (0.16) |
75+ | 227 | 0.83 (0.16) | 104 | 0.85 (0.16) | 122 | 0.82 (0.15) |
Total | 2908 |
X
2 = 282, p < 0.001 | ||||
Educational attainment | ||||||
Up to secondary | 1187 | 0.90 (0.15) | 510 | 0.91 (0.16) | 677 | 0.89 (0.15) |
Trade, apprenticeship, certificate, diploma | 1061 | 0.90 (0.14) | 605 | 0.91 (0.12) | 456 | 0.89 (0.15) |
Degree or higher | 651 | 0.93 (0.12) | 301 | 0.93 (0.12) | 351 | 0.93 (0.12) |
Total | 2900 |
X
2 = 15.0, p = 0.001 | ||||
Area of residence | ||||||
Metropolitan | 2163 | 0.91 (0.14) | 1047 | 0.92 (0.13) | 1114 | 0.90 (0.14) |
Regional | 745 | 0.90 (0.15) | 373 | 0.91 (0.14) | 372 | 0.90 (0.15) |
Total | 2908 |
Z = -0.21, p = 0.83 | ||||
Country of birth | ||||||
Australia | 2138 | 0.91 (0.14) | 1054 | 0.91 (0.14) | 1082 | 0.90 (0.14) |
European | 461 | 0.88 (0.16) | 217 | 0.90 (0.14) | 244 | 0.86 (0.17) |
Asian | 206 | 0.97 (0.07) | 110 | 0.97 (0.06) | 96 | 0.96 (0.08) |
Other | 101 | 0.93 (0.12) | 39 | 0.93 (0.15) | 62 | 0.94 (0.10) |
Total | 2906 |
X
2 = 75.6, p < 0.001 | ||||
Marital status | ||||||
Married/De Facto | 1791 | 0.91 (0.14) | 900 | 0.92 (0.13) | 890 | 0.90 (0.14) |
Never Married | 718 | 0.93 (0.13) | 394 | 0.93 (0.14) | 325 | 0.93 (0.12) |
Separated/Divorced | 264 | 0.87 (0.17) | 94 | 0.88 (0.17) | 169 | 0.86 (0.16) |
Widowed | 133 | 0.84 (0.16) | 31 | 0.87 (0.15) | 100 | 0.83 (0.16) |
Total | 2906 |
X
2 = 92.8, p < 0.001 | ||||
Employment status | ||||||
Full time or part-time | 1616 | 0.94 (0.09) | 891 | 0.95 (0.08) | 723 | 0.93 (0.10) |
Home Duties | 161 | 0.90 (0.14) | 6 | 0.96 (0.04) | 155 | 0.90 (0.14) |
Unemployed | 96 | 0.88 (0.15) | 45 | 0.90 (0.15) | 51 | 0.87 (0.15) |
Retired | 593 | 0.86 (0.15) | 256 | 0.87 (0.15) | 337 | 0.86 (0.15) |
Student | 275 | 0.95 (0.07) | 130 | 0.96 (0.08) | 145 | 0.95 (0.07) |
Not working due to work-related injury or disability | 118 | 0.61 (0.26) | 67 | 0.62 (0.26) | 51 | 0.60 (0.26) |
Other | 45 | 0.88 (0.16) | 23 | 0.96 (0.06) | 23 | 0.81 (0.19) |
Total | 2904 |
X
2 = 407, p < 0.001 | ||||
Annual household income | ||||||
Up to $20,000 | 176 | 0.83 (0.19) | 59 | 0.83 (0.20) | 117 | 0.82 (0.19) |
$20,001-$40,000 | 372 | 0.84 (0.17) | 159 | 0.84 (0.18) | 214 | 0.85 (0.17) |
$40,001-$80,000 | 562 | 0.91 (0.14) | 280 | 0.92 (0.13) | 282 | 0.90 (0.15) |
$80,001-$120,000 | 438 | 0.93 (0.10) | 230 | 0.94 (0.10) | 208 | 0.93 (0.11) |
$120,001+ | 584 | 0.94 (0.10) | 338 | 0.95 (0.08) | 246 | 0.93 (0.11) |
Not Stated | 776 | 0.91 (0.14) | 354 | 0.92 (0.15) | 417 | 0.91 (0.14) |
Total | 2908 |
X
2 = 156, p < 0.001 |
Total | Males | Females | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable |
n
| mean (SD) |
n
| mean (SD) |
n
| mean (SD) |
All | 2905 | 78.55 (16.57) | 1422 | 78.89 (15.71) | 1483 | 78.23 (17.35) |
Z = -1.29, p = 0.20 | ||||||
Age category, years | ||||||
15–24 | 464 | 82.00 (14.06) | 238 | 81.75 (13.02) | 226 | 82.26 (15.11) |
25–34 | 449 | 80.84 (14.58) | 225 | 81.51 (14.56) | 224 | 80.16 (14.60) |
35–44 | 480 | 78.50 (16.65) | 238 | 79.05 (15.03) | 241 | 77.96 (18.13) |
45–54 | 499 | 75.64 (18.00) | 247 | 76.08 (16.94) | 253 | 75.20 (18.96) |
55–64 | 443 | 78.92 (16.84) | 217 | 79.01 (16.02) | 225 | 78.83 (17.63) |
65–74 | 346 | 78.56 (17.19) | 153 | 78.21 (17.04) | 193 | 78.83 (17.34) |
75+ | 225 | 72.68 (17.66) | 104 | 73.66 (17.38) | 121 | 71.83 (17.93) |
Total | 2906 |
X
2 = 58.8, p < 0.001 |
Health statea
|
n
| % | Cumulative % | Mean utility | Mean EQ-VAS (SD) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
11111 | 1245 | 42.8 | 42.8 | 1.00 | 85.44 (11.75) |
11121 | 356 | 12.2 | 55.0 | 0.94 | 81.32 (13.02) |
11112 | 162 | 5.6 | 60.6 | 0.92 | 79.20 (13.33) |
21121 | 116 | 4.0 | 64.6 | 0.89 | 80.71 (12.75) |
11122 | 93 | 3.2 | 67.8 | 0.87 | 77.72 (14.08) |
11131 | 69 | 2.4 | 70.2 | 0.93 | 74.67 (14.67) |
21111 | 53 | 1.8 | 72.0 | 0.95 | 83.56 (8.70) |
11113 | 52 | 1.8 | 73.8 | 0.90 | 71.99 (15.4) |
21221 | 41 | 1.4 | 75.2 | 0.84 | 76.89 (14.90) |
21122 | 30 | 1.0 | 76.2 | 0.82 | 74.41 (12.56) |
11221 | 24 | 0.8 | 77.0 | 0.89 | 78.70 (11.68) |
21131 | 24 | 0.8 | 77.8 | 0.88 | 76.69 (13.63) |
11123 | 23 | 0.8 | 78.6 | 0.84 | 70.91 (15.28) |
11132 | 19 | 0.6 | 79.2 | 0.85 | 71.58 (18.01) |
21222 | 18 | 0.6 | 79.8 | 0.77 | 64.75 (16.82) |
31231 | 17 | 0.6 | 80.4 | 0.82 | 66.86 (15.00) |
31221 | 16 | 0.6 | 81.0 | 0.83 | 70.92 (17.31) |
21231 | 16 | 0.6 | 81.6 | 0.83 | 63.27 (14.33) |
11211 | 15 | 0.5 | 82.1 | 0.95 | 73.14 (17.48) |
31121 | 15 | 0.5 | 82.6 | 0.88 | 77.07 (15.60) |
Variablea
| Disutility scores | EQ-VAS scores | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | |||||||||
B
b
| 95 % CI |
p-value |
B
b
| 95 % CI |
p-value |
B
b
| 95 % CI |
p-value |
B
b
| 95 % CI |
p-value | |
Control variables
| ||||||||||||
Gender (positive) | ||||||||||||
Malec
| ||||||||||||
Female | 0.18 | −0.06, 0.43 | 0.14 | 0.19 | −0.05, 0.44 | 0.13 |
0.01
|
0.01, 0.02
|
<0.01
|
0.02
|
0.01, 0.02
|
<0.01
|
Age category, years (positive) | ||||||||||||
15–29c
| ||||||||||||
30–49 |
0.68
|
0.25, 1.11
|
<0.01
|
0.62
|
0.13, 1.10
|
0.01
|
−0.06
|
−0.07,−0.05
|
<0.01
|
−0.06
|
−0.07,−0.05
|
<0.01
|
50–69 |
0.98
|
0.58, 1.40
|
<0.01
|
0.85
|
0.34, 1.36
|
<0.01
|
−0.05
|
−0.06, −0.03
|
<0.01
|
−0.05
|
−0.06, −0.03
|
<0.01
|
70+ |
1.28
|
0.84, 1.72
|
<0.01
|
1.25
|
0.58, 1.92
|
<0.01
|
−0.63
|
−0.08, −0.05
|
<0.01
|
−0.10
|
−0.02, −0.07
|
<0.01
|
Education attainment (negative) | ||||||||||||
Up to secondaryc
| ||||||||||||
Trade, apprenticeship, certificate, diploma | −0.05 | −0.32, 0.22 | 0.71 | 0.07 | −0.21, 0.34 | 0.63 |
0.02
|
0.01, 0.03
|
<0.01
|
0.01
|
0.00, 0.02
|
0.04
|
Degree or higher | −0.32 | −0.67, 0.03 | 0.07 | −0.07 | −0.43, 0.30 | 0.72 |
0.07
|
0.06, 0.08
|
<0.01
|
0.05
|
0.03, 0.06
|
<0.01
|
Exploratory variables
| ||||||||||||
Annual household income (negative) | ||||||||||||
Up to $20,000c
| ||||||||||||
$20,001–$60,000 | −0.01 | −0.44, 0.43 | 0.98 |
0.02
|
0.00, 0.05
|
0.02
| ||||||
$60,001–$100,000 | −0.25 | −0.80, 0.29 | 0.37 |
0.07
|
0.05, 0.09
|
<0.01
| ||||||
$100,001+ | −0.33 | −0.88, 0.22 | 0.24 |
0.04
|
0.01, 0.06
|
<0.01
| ||||||
Not stated | −0.17 | −0.62, 0.29 | 0.48 |
0.02
|
0.00, 0.04
|
0.04
| ||||||
Employment status (positive) | ||||||||||||
Full or part time, student, home dutiesc
| ||||||||||||
Unemployed |
0.67
|
0.04, 1.29
|
0.04
|
−0.09
|
−0.11, −0.07
|
<0.01
| ||||||
Retired | 0.14 | −0.30, 0.58 | 0.54 |
0.03
|
0.02, 0.05
|
<0.01
| ||||||
Otherd
|
1.41
|
1.06, 1.77
|
<0.01
|
−0.31
|
−0.33, −0.29
|
<0.01
| ||||||
Marital status (positive) | ||||||||||||
Married/De Factoc
| ||||||||||||
Never Married | 0.09 | −0.32, 0.50 | 0.68 |
−0.22
|
−0.04, −0.01
|
<0.01
| ||||||
Separated/Divorced | 0.57 | −0.33, 0.44 | 0.77 |
−0.06
|
−0.07, −0.04
|
<0.01
| ||||||
Widowed | 0.51 | −0.45, 0.55 | 0.84 |
−0.05
|
−0.08, −0.03
|
<0.01
| ||||||
Constant |
−3.17
|
−3.57, −2.78
|
<0.01
|
−3.29
|
−3.99, −2.59
|
<0.01
|
4.38
|
4.37, 4.39
|
<0.01
|
4.39
|
4.37, 4.42
|
<0.01
|
AIC | 0.55 | 0.53 | 12.97 | 12.53 | ||||||||
BIC | −22714 | −22703 | −3367 | −4589 |