Factor analysis
Using an exploratory PCA of the 90 items of the SCL-90, a 5-factor solution was identified (Table
1). A total of 77 items with a loading >0.40 were retained. We named factors on the basis of items with the highest loadings. The first factor reflected a depressive 'worthlessness and being trapped' dimension; this accounted for 29.9% of the variance. The second factor, accounting for 4.2% of the variance, picked out a 'somatisation' dimension. The third factor identified a 'sensitivity-psychoticism' dimension; this accounted for 3.0% of the total variance. Panic symptoms loaded on the fourth factor, 'panic anxiety', accounted for 2.15% of the total variance. The last, fifth factor singled out a 'violence-suicide' dimension, which accounted for 2.0% of the total variance. Overall, the five factors accounted for 37.8% of the variance of the items.
Table 1
Factor loading of the 77 Self-Report Symptom Inventory (SCL-90) items retained in the principal component analysis (PCA)
02. Nervousness or shakiness inside | | | | | 0.42 |
03. Unwanted thoughts, words, or ideas that won't leave your mind | 0.41 | | | | |
04. Faintness or dizziness | | | | 0.48 | |
05. Loss of sexual interest or pleasure | 0.44 | | | | |
07. The idea that someone else can control your thoughts | | | 0.51 | | |
10. Worried about sloppiness or carelessness | 0.48 | | | | |
11. Feeling easily annoyed and irritated | | 0.40 | | | |
12. Pains in heart or chest | | 0.43 | | | |
13. Feeling afraid in open spaces or on the streets | | | | 0.60 | |
14. Feeling low in energy or slowed down | | 0.59 | | | |
15. Thoughts of ending your life | | | | | 0.48 |
17. Trembling | | 0.46 | | | |
19. Poor appetite | | 0.44 | | | |
22. Feeling of being trapped or caught | 0.68 | | | | |
23. Suddenly scared for no reason | | | | 0.41 | |
24. Temper outbursts that you could not control | | | | | 0.60 |
25. Feeling afraid to go out of your house alone | | | | 0.56 | |
26. Blaming yourself for things | 0.43 | | | | |
27. Pains in lower back | | 0.61 | | | |
28. Feeling blocked in getting things done | 0.53 | | | | |
29. Feeling lonely | 0.66 | | | | |
30. Feeling blue | 0.66 | | | | |
31. Worrying too much about things | 0.47 | | | | |
32. Feeling no interest in things | 0.63 | | | | |
33. Feeling fearful | | | | 0.44 | |
34. Your feelings being easily hurt | 0.45 | | | | |
35. Other people being aware of your private thoughts | | | 0.58 | | |
36. Feeling others do not understand you or are unsympathetic | | | 0.54 | | |
37. Feeling that people are unfriendly or dislike you | | | 0.56 | | |
38. Having to do things very slowly to ensure correctness | | | 0.46 | | |
39. Heart pounding or racing | | 0.46 | | | |
40. Nausea or upset stomach | | 0.62 | | | |
41. Feeling inferior to others | 0.57 | | | | |
42. Soreness of your muscles | | 0.73 | | | |
43. Feeling that you are watched or talked about by others | | | 0.59 | | |
44. Trouble falling sleep | | 0.62 | | | |
45. Having to check and double check what you do | | | 0.47 | | |
46. Difficulty making decisions | 0.54 | | | | |
47. Feeling afraid to travel on buses, subways, or on trains | | | | 0.53 | |
48. Trouble getting your breath | | 0.46 | | | |
49. Hot or cold spells | | 0.69 | | | |
50. Having to avoid certain things, places, or activities because they frighten you | | | | 0.42 | |
51. Your mind going blank | 0.44 | | | | |
52. Numbness or tingling in parts of your body | | 0.50 | | | |
53. A lump in your throat | | 0.48 | | | |
54. Feeling hopeless about the future | 0.64 | | | | |
55. Trouble concentrating | 0.52 | | | | |
56. Feeling weak in parts of your body | | 0.62 | | | |
57. Feeling tense or keyed up | 0.43 | | | | |
58. Heavy feelings in your arms or legs | | 0.70 | | | |
59. Thoughts of death or dying | | | | | 0.47 |
61. Feeling uneasy when people are watching or talking about you | | | 0.50 | | |
62. Having thoughts that are not your own | | | 0.51 | | |
63. Having urges to beat, injure, or harm someone | | | | | 0.54 |
64. Waking up early in the morning | | 0.52 | | | |
66. Sleep that is restless or disturbed | | 0.57 | | | |
67. Having urges to break or smash things up | | | | | 0.67 |
68. Having ideas or beliefs that others do not share | | | 0.41 | | |
69. Feeling very self-conscious with others | | | 0.48 | | |
70. Feeling uneasy in crowds, such as shopping or at a movie | | | 0.42 | | |
71. Feeling everything is an effort | 0.52 | | | | |
72. Spells of terror or panic | | | | 0.54 | |
73. Feeling uncomfortable about eating or drinking in public | | | 0.41 | | |
74. Getting into frequent arguments | | | | | 0.51 |
75. Feeling nervous when you are left alone | 0.40 | | | | |
76. Others not giving you proper credit for your achievement | | | 0.45 | | |
77. Feeling lonely even when you are with people | 0.60 | | | | |
78. Feeling so restless you couldn't sit still | | | | | 0.40 |
79. Feelings of worthlessness | 0.69 | | | | |
80. Feeling that familiar things are strange or unreal | | | 0.40 | | |
81. Shouting or throwing things | | | | | 0.70 |
82. Feeling afraid you will faint in public | | | | 0.47 | |
83. Feeling that people will take advantage of you if you let them | | | 0.46 | | |
86. Feeling pushed to get things done | | | 0.41 | | |
88. Never feeling close to another person | 0.50 | | | | |
89. Feelings of guilt | 0.53 | | | | |
90. The idea that something is wrong with your mind | 0.52 | | | | |
Eingenvalue | 26.8 | 3.78 | 2.70 | 2.15 | 1.85 |
Variance | 29.9 | 4.2 | 3.0 | 2.4 | 2.0 |
On the basis of the highest z scores obtained on the five SCL-90 factors (dominant SCL-90 factor) subjects were assigned to five mutually exclusive groups. The group whose dominant was 'worthlessness and being trapped' comprised 150 subjects (14.2%), the group with 'somatisation' as its dominant gathered 257 subjects (24.4%), the group showing 'sensitivity-psychoticism' as its dominant included 205 subjects (19.4%), the group identified by 'panic anxiety' as its dominant numbered 235 subjects (22.3%), and the group whose dominant was 'violence-suicide' group profiled a cluster of 208 subjects (19.7%). These five groups were sufficiently distinct, and failed to reveal any significant overlap. All these patients showed positive scores in their dominant factors only, alongside negative scores in all the others, the only exception being a small number of patients whose dominant was 'worthlessness and being trapped', who recorded a positive score for the 'sensitivity psychoticism' factor (mean = 0.07; 95% CI = -0.06 to 0.19) This finding was confirmed by the discriminant analysis, which indicated a percentage of correctly classified 'grouped' cases as high as 95.26%.
The main factor (worthlessness, feeling trapped) brings together depressive, obsessive-compulsive and psychotic symptoms. Treatment-seeking addicts who display depressed mood usually report feelings of uselessness and the feeling of being trapped in a corner. These patients feel abandoned, sad, with no goal or interest; they are excessively preoccupied with difficulties, and report feelings of guilt, while experiencing a low or zero sexual drive, too. Obsessive-compulsive symptoms include difficulties in making decisions, completing a task and concentrating, along with worries about one's ineptitude, an 'empty mind' sensation and an incapacity to dominate one's thoughts. Other symptoms, such as the need to check out actions several times or act slowly so as to avoid making mistakes, are not featured. Compulsions and memory impairment do not appear in any factor. Thought disorders consist of feeling alone even when with other people, the thought that one's mind is not working properly, while never feeling really close to others. Lastly, these subjects report a feeling of inferiority, are easily hurt (interpersonal sensitivity), do not like being alone (phobic anxiety) and often feel nervous and upset ('free' anxiety). On the whole, this factor is essentially made up of depressive, obsessive and psychotic features, dominated by feelings of uselessness and of being trapped in a corner.
The second factor (somatisation) is distinguished by a number of somatic and anxious elements, which are usually a feature of opiate withdrawal. The patient complains of muscle aches, back pain, heavy legs and arms, weakness and tiredness, loss of sensitivity and paraesthesia somewhere in the body. Hot flushes and cold shivers are possible too, as well as nausea and stomach ache. Sleep is disturbed and broken up, while getting to sleep is difficult. Patients wake up early at dawn and cannot get back to sleep. They report a sensation of choking, or of being breathless; they may tremble, are aware of their heart beating, or even of chest pain. Appetite is low. Interpersonal sensitivity is heightened, so that they are easily annoyed and irritated.
The third factor features sensitivity and psychoticism. Patients have the impression that others stare at them and speak about them, may do something against them or exploit them with unpredictable consequences. They think they are not respected by their workmates or are disapproved of because of their own views. They get the impression that others do not sympathise with them or approve of their behaviour, or even show explicit hostility towards them. They feel uneasy when they find other people staring at them or simply in speaking with acquaintances, or may even feel threatened when others are there in the same room. They feel uncomfortable in open or crowded spaces, or when doing things in a group (for example, eating). These behaviours may be defined as psychotic as long as the patient is convinced that others control or influence their thoughts, in some cases actually being identified as imposed from outside that individual's mind. Obsessive-compulsive features of a checking type, or taking a lot of time in doing things out of a fear of making mistakes, may also be part of the picture. Lastly, there may be feelings of estrangement and detachment from reality, with the impression that common and familiar things no longer belong to them.
The fourth factor (panic anxiety) can be summed up as agoraphobia, a fear of going around alone, episodes of critical anxiety, fear of travelling by bus, train or subway, sensations of fainting, dizziness or fear of feeling sick or upset in front of other people. Generalised fear is a feature, with the need to avoid certain things, places or activities in order to prevent panicking.
The fifth factor (violence-suicide) includes violent acting outs and features of self-directed aggressiveness. Patients have moments when they cry or throw objects with the aim of breaking them or smashing them into pieces, and suffer from outbursts of rage. They often get into arguments and feel the urge to push, hurt or beat up others. Side by side with all this, they have suicidal thoughts, or longings for death, are upset, excited or restless, and find it hard to stay seated or lie down for any length of time.
Characteristics of patients with heroin addiction in the five groups
The female/male ratio was 1:4.5 for patients in the 'worthlessness and being trapped' group (group 1), 1:6.4 for 'somatisation' (group 2), 1:7.1 for 'sensitivity-psychoticism' ones (group 3), 1:5 for 'panic anxiety' (group 4) and 1:3.7 for 'violence-suicide' (group 5). These differences were not statistically significant (χ2 = 6.83 P = not significant).
Length of dependence (years) was 8 ± 6 years for group 1, 8 ± 6 for group 2, 7 ± 6 for group 3, 7 ± 6 for group 4 and 7 ± 6 for group 5 patients. No significant differences were observed (Kruskal-Wallis test = 5.69 P = not significant).
Group 1 patients were 31 ± 7 years old; group 2 patients were 31 ± 7 years old; group 3 patients were 29 ± 7 years old; group 4 patients were 30 ± 7 years old and group 5 patients were 29 ± 6 years old. Patients belonging to group 2 did not differ from those belonging to group 1 or to group 4 patients, but, with statistical significance, were older than patients belonging to group 3 and group 5 (F = 4.79 P < 0.01). Younger heroin addicts displayed higher scores for violence-suicide, sensitivity and panic anxiety symptomatology. Older heroin addicts were distinguished by higher scores for somatisation and worthlessness-being trapped symptomatology.