Background
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder of the extrapyramidal system, affecting up to 3% of individuals aged 65 years and older and over 1 million people in North America [
1,
2]. The disease is characterized clinically by resting tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and postural instability and pharmacologically by response to l-dopa treatment. Neuropathologically, it is associated with selective loss of dopaminergic neurons and the presence of intracytoplasmic proteinaceous inclusions, known as Lewy bodies (LBs), in the substantia nigra [
1]. The etiology and pathogenesis of PD remains enigmatic, but growing evidence has suggested a genetic basis for PD. Mutations in genes encoding parkin, PTEN-induced putative kinase 1, and DJ-1 are segregated with autosomal recessive, early-onset familial PD, whereas those in genes encoding α-synuclein and leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are linked to autosomal dominant PD [
3‐
5]. Of these five genes, only LRRK2 mutations have been shown to be both a common cause and a risk factor for familial PD and sporadic PD, respectively. LRRK2 mutations accounted for up to 6–40% of familial PD cases depending on the ethnic populations studied, and up to 2% of community-base sporadic PD cases [
6‐
11].
The clinical and pathological features associated with the LRRK2 mutations are in most cases consistent with those of late-onset PD but may vary depending on the type of pathogenic mutations. It has been reported that patients carrying the most common G2019S mutation present a disease phenotype that is indistinguishable from idiopathic PD, which is characterized by classical Lewy body pathology [
12‐
14]. Instead, patients carrying the less common R1441C and Y1699C mutations may have a more variable disease presentation that can include PD and other clinical parkinsonism such as dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and progressive supranuclear palsy [
4]. These apparently pleomorphic pathologies may reflect the effect of specific pathogenic substitutions on the structure and function of LRRK2.
The neuropathological hallmark of PD is the presence of spherical LBs in affected brainstem. LB inclusions are also a prominent pathological feature of DLB, but are of more diffused nature and are found in cortical regions [
15]. Among proteins genetically associated with PD, α-synuclein and parkin have been previously shown to be components of LBs in both PD and DLB [
16‐
18]. Both α-synuclein and parkin are known to be phosphoproteins [
19‐
21] and hence are potentially regulated by LRRK2 serving as a functional kinase [
22,
23]. It is therefore of particular interest to determine whether LRRK2 also localizes to LBs. Given that LRRK2 is such a large protein with 2527 amino acids and multiple protein domains, we performed a detailed analysis of LRRK2 localization by using a battery of antibodies against different regions spanning the entire protein to address this important issue. Here we provide strong evidence that LRRK2 is localized, both
in situ and following isolation, to LBs in both PD and DLB.
Discussion
To date, several genes with mutations linked to familial forms of PD have been identified, such as α-synuclein, parkin, PTEN-induced putative kinase 1, DJ-1, tau protein, and LRRK2. Mutations in all above except LRRK2 have been associated with early-onset or pathologically atypical forms of PD. Pathogenic mutations in LRRK2 have been recently identified in both autosomal dominant familial PD and sporadic PD [
6‐
11,
26], and are thus far the most important genetic factor for predicting late-onset familial and sporadic PD [
3,
27,
28]. Apart from the highest prevalence among PD associated genes, LRRK2 mutations lead to a predominantly late-onset clinical phenotype that resembles idiopathic PD [
12‐
14]. LRRK2 has thus emerged as, perhaps, the most relevant player in the pathogenesis of PD.
While there is increasing interest in the role of LRRK2 in the etiology of PD, most studies have focused on genetic predominance using DNA analysis of living donors. The paucity of reports on the normal and pathological distribution of LRRK2 protein is likely due in part to the availability of specific antibodies and the presence of exposed epitopes of LRRK2 in tissue sections. Instead, an alternative approach using in situ hybridization has been used to map mRNA expression of LRRK2 in rodent and human brains. It has been reported that mRNA of LRRK2 is expressed in dopamine-receptive (striatum) rather than dopamine-synthesizing (brainstem) regions in mice, rats and humans [
29,
30]. However, no difference was found between control subjects and PD cases [
30]. It is likely that the mRNA expression levels may not accurately reflect the accumulation of LRRK2 protein in pathological brains.
Until now, the role of LRRK2 protein in PD pathology using immunohistochemical detection of LBs with a single antibody has thus far proved elusive. Previous studies have showed that an antiserum against the central region of LRRK2 do not recognize LBs [
25] whereas antisera directed at the N-terminus [
31] and C-terminus [
31,
32] of the protein specifically label LBs. The possible reasons for this discrepancy may be due to the difference in experimental conditions such as tissue processing and antibody specificity. Analysis of protein localization to LBs, composed of tightly packed filaments, can be inherently difficult, in particular problems with epitope masking in tissue sections. In our present study, a battery of specific antibodies directed against different regions of LRRK2 has been used for detailed analysis of serial tissue sections from PD and DLB cases. This strategy provides us an opportunity to overcome obstacles associated with differential exposure of antigenic sites of LRRK2. Of the four different antibodies tested, the two antibodies (Ab1 and Ab4) which strongly label LBs are directed against epitopes located outside the five folded domains of LRRK2. The antibody against LRRK2
1246–1265, Ab2, with an epitope within the LRRs domain was negative for LB staining, as previously published [
25], as well as negative for cell bodies and vessels. Indeed, LBs remain unstained also using an antibody against other folded domains (LRRK2
1838–2133), Ab3, yet this antibody still recognized LRRK2 protein present in the vasculature. We postulate that LRRK2 sequences outside the folded domains (such as LRRK2
900–1000 and LRRK2
2500–2527) are highly exposed in LBs and most other brain structures. However, some sequences within the folded regions of LRRK2 (such as LRRK2
1838–2133) are masked in LBs but not in brain vascular structures, whereas other sequences (such as LRRK2
1246–1265) are masked in LBs as well as other brain components. It should be noted that all of antibodies tested have a positive immunoreactivity to LRRK2 on Western blots. However, as demonstrated in the present study, their usefulness in recognizing the respective LRRK2 epitopes in tissue sections differs widely. Our study highlights the importance of vigorous investigation in immunocytochemical analysis using multiple antibodies against different structural regions to circumvent epitope masking, especially for a large protein with a complex composition like LRRK2.
In light of the recent
in vitro observation that LRRK2 overexpression leads to protein aggregation in cultured cells [
33], it is particularly intriguing to find an apparent accumulation of LRRK2 in PD brains examined as compared to control cases. The accumulation of LRRK2 is localized to LBs, the proteinaceous inclusions, in brain regions most affected by PD (brainstem) and DLB (cortical area). Our findings are consistent with a potential gain of function for LRRK2 in disease pathogenesis, and are in line with genetic studies [
3,
27,
28] that have found LRRK2 mutations thus far the most frequent cause of autosomal dominant PD and sporadic PD.
LRRK2 is predicted to contain several functionally important domains with multiple scaffold protein modules and signaling activities, including Ras-related GTPase and MAPKKK (mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase) positioned at the top-tier of signal transduction cascades that regulate diverse arrays of cellular processes [
24,
34]. Hence, LRRK2 is likely to contribute to the regulatory machinery that helps maintain homeostasis of neuronal functions through its intrinsic enzymatic reactions such as GTP binding and hydrolysis, and protein phosphorylation. Recent reports have confirmed that LRRK2 indeed functions as a kinase and pathogenic mutations augment its activity in cell culture models [
22,
23]. Interestingly, two other proteins associated with PD, α-synuclein and parkin, are phosphoproteins localized to LBs. It is well established that α-synuclein is a major component of LBs [
16‐
18], and selective and extensive phosphorylation of α-synuclein has been observed in both PD and DLB [
19,
20], and
in vitro phosphorylation of α-synuclein has been shown to promote its aggregation [
35]. Parkin is an ubiquitin ligase, also localized to LBs of PD and DLB [
18]. Phosphorylation of parkin has been shown to regulate its ubiquitin ligase activity [
21]. Importantly, a close interaction between LRRK2 and parkin has been recently reported [
33]. Our present study has identified LRRK2 as the first signaling protein that is both genetically associated with PD and a constituent of its hallmark pathology. The co-localization of the protein kinase LRRK2 in LBs may provide a molecular mechanism underlying divergent causes associated with parkinsonism, including aberrant protein phosphorylation and subsequent protein aggregation mediated by α-synuclein and parkin. As the PD and DLB cases we investigated are sporadic and patients carrying the common LRRK2 mutations seem to share a typical late-onset disease presentation [
12‐
14], our findings suggest a universal role of LRRK2 in etiology and pathogenesis of parkinsonism. Taken together, we conclude that LRRK2 is an essential component of LBs in PD and DLB. The expression patterns of LRRK2 in normal and pathological brains we described here will help design plausible experimental models of PD, and more importantly strategies toward productive therapeutics.
Materials and methods
Brain tissue
Tissue samples were obtained from the Case Medical Center and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Brain and Tissue Bank for Developmental Disorders. Brain tissue specimens were obtained postmortem from patients with histopathologically confirmed PD (n = 6; age range 53–76 years), DLB (n = 6; age range 68–85 year), and from control patients without neurological disease (n = 4; age range 42–79 years for brainstem and n = 5; age range 31–74 for neocortex samples). Sections of midbrain containing substantia nigra pars compacta were examined for PD cases, and hippocampus with adjacent cortical tissue was examined for cases of DLB. Corresponding areas from the control cases were also examined.
LRRK2 antibodies
Affinity-purified rabbit polyclonal antibodies raised against different regions of the LRRK2 sequence were used for this study. These include Ab1 (Cat #NB300-267, Novus Biologicals, Littleton, CO) raised against LRRK2 residues between 900 and 1000 (LRRK2900–1000); Ab2 (Cat #AP7099b, Abgent, San Diego, CA) raised against LRRK2 residues between 1246–1265 (LRRK21246–1265); Ab3 (Cat #ALX-210-928-C100, Alexis Biochemicals, San Diego, CA) raised against LRRK2 residues between 1838–2133 (LRRK21838–2133); and Ab4 (Cat #NB300-268, Novus Biologicals, Littleton, CO) raised against LRRK2 residues 2500–2527 (LRRK22500–2527).
Western blotting
Recombinant LRRK2 was overexpressed in human embryonic kidney 293T cell line or human neuroblastoma M17 cell line, following transient transfection with a mammalian expression vector containing human LRRK2 cDNA (pCMV6-XL4/LRRK2; Origene Techonologies, Rockville, MD). Transfection was performed using the Lipofectamine 2000 reagent (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA), and cell lysates were collected in lysis buffer (1% Triton X-100 in phosphate-buffered saline with the Complete protease inhibitors (Roche Applied Science, Indianapolis, IN)) after 48 h. Brain homogenates prepared from frozen brainstem samples from cases of Parkinson disease and age matched controls (10% w/v) were made in a buffer containing 20 mM Tris, pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, 0.5% NP 40, 0.5% Na deoxycolate, and the Complete protease inhibitors (Roche). The protein concentration was determined with a DC protein assay kit (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA). An equivalent of 100 μg (brain homogenates) or 10 μg (cell lysates) of proteins was used for Western blot analysis. Cell lysates or brain homogenates were boiled for 10 minutes in sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) sample buffer (3% SDS; 2 mM EDTA; 10% glycerol; 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 6.8). Proteins were separated by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE, 6% gels), and transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride membranes. The membranes were blocked with 10% nonfat milk prepared in Tris-buffered saline containing 0.1% Tween 20 (TBST) and then incubated for 16 hours at 4°C with anti-LRRK2 antibodies at appropriate dilutions (Ab1, 1:3,000; Ab2, 1:500; Ab3, 1:5,000; and Ab4, 1:6,000). As an absorption control, an antibody was incubated with its peptide antigen at the ratio of 1:10 (w/w) for 1 h at room temperature prior to final dilution. Following incubation with a horseradish peroxidase conjugated anti-rabbit secondary antibody (Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, NJ), LRRK2 was visualized by enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL plus kit; Amersham Biosciences) according to the manufacturer's instructions.
Immunocytochemistry
Brain tissue was fixed in formalin and was subsequently dehydrated through graded ethanol and xylene solutions and embedded in paraffin. Six-micron thick microtome sections were prepared and placed on silane-coated slides. Following hydration, sections were immunostained by the peroxidase-antiperoxidase procedure using anti-LRRK2 antibodies at a final dilution of 1:100 to 1:200. Adjacent sections were also immunostained with an antibody to α-synuclein (Chemicon, Temecula, CA) to locate the Lewy bodies. Purified cortical Lewy bodies were prepared from brain tissue affected by DLB as described [
15], and were subsequently dried onto silane-coated glass slides for immunostaining of α-synuclein and LRRK2. To verify the specificity of immunolabeling of LRRK2, primary antibody was omitted as a negative control. In addition, adsorption control experiments were performed by incubating peptides (Novus Biologicals) corresponding to LRRK2
900–1000 and LRRK2
2500–2527 with corresponding antibodies on some cases. The diluted primary antibodies were incubated for 16 hours at 4°C with the peptides (0.2 mg/ml) and used for immunocytochemistry.
Competing interests
The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
SGC and XZ designed overall study, and contributed to the data interpretation and preparation of the manuscript. AB and SLS undertook immunostaining of tissue sections and contributed to manuscript preparation. QY provided technical assistance for Western blot assays. GI and TI provided purified cortical Lewy bodies and contributed to manuscript preparation. MAS and GP contributed to the data interpretation and preparation of the manuscript.