Background
Effective immunocyte exclusion and dysfunction
Subtype | Signaling | Tumor type | Effect | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
Effective immunocyte exclusion and dysfunction | β-Catenin | Melanoma | Decreased T cell infiltration | 18, 21, 22 |
Inhibition of IFN-γ production by CTLs | 23 | |||
Upregulating the expression and activity of IDO by DCs | 24 | |||
STAT3 | Lung cancer | Inhibition of CCL5 and CXCL10 production to decrease T cell infiltration | 25, 26, 28 | |
PI3K/PTEN/AKT/mTOR | Breast, prostate, and lung cancer, gliomas | Regulation of PD-L1 expression to induce T cell dysfunction | 29, 31–33 | |
Triple-negative breast cancer | Decreased T cell infiltration, regulation of PD-L1 expression | 30 | ||
Multiple cancers | Decreased the therapeutic efficacy of an E7-specific vaccine or CD8+ T cell adoptive transfer | 34 | ||
p53 | Liver carcinoma | Increased recruitment and activation of innate immune cells | 37,38 | |
Triple-negative breast cancer | Regulation of T cell infiltration | 39 | ||
NF-κB | Epithelial ovarian cancer | Immunosuppression of DCs and macrophages | 42 | |
Colitis-associated cancer, cervical cancer, etc. | Increased T cell infiltration and activation | 43–46 | ||
RAS/RAF/MAPK | Lung adenocarcinoma, RAS mutant cancer | Inducing PD-L1 expression | 47, 48 | |
Melanoma | Suppression of DC function | 50, 51 | ||
Melanoma | Inhibiting the recognition of tumor cell antigens by tumor-infiltrated T lymphocytes | 52 | ||
Melanoma | Suppression of proliferation and function of specific cytotoxic T cells | 53 | ||
GBE1 | Lung adenocarcinoma | Decreased T cell infiltration | 54 | |
KRAS/MYC | KRAS-mutant tumor | Exclusion of B, T, and NK cells | 55 | |
EGFR | Non-small cell lung cancer, head and neck cancer | Upregulation of PD-L1 expression | 56–60 | |
VEGFR | Chronic myeloid leukemia | Inhibited NK cell-mediated immunosurveillance | 61 | |
Recruitment and differentiation of immunosuppressive cells | PI3K/PTEN/AKT | Breast, pancreatic, and lung carcinomas | Recruitment of macrophages and polarization of TAMs | 70–72 |
Sarcomas | Enhanced infiltrating myeloid-derived hematopoietic cells | 73 | ||
Prostate cancer | Increased expansion and infiltration of MDSCs | 74,75 | ||
RAS/RAF/MAPK | KRAS-driven lung tumorigenesis, melanoma | Increased Treg infiltration | 76,78 | |
BRAFi-resistant melanoma | Increased MDSC infiltration | 77 | ||
KRAS | KRAS-driven non-small cell lung cancer | Accumulation of TANs | 79 | |
KRAS-mutant tumor | Recruitment of proangiogenic macrophages | 55 | ||
CCRK/mTOR | Obesity-associated hepatocellular carcinoma | Recruitment of MDSCs | 80 | |
RAGE | Pancreatic carcinogenesis | Accumulation of MDSCs | 81 | |
TLR9 | Prostate cancer | Expansion and activation of G-MDSCs | 82 | |
p53 loss-of-function | Late stage metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer | Accumulation of MDSCs | 83 | |
IDO | Advanced cancer | Generation and activation of MDSCs and Tregs | 64 | |
CD200/CD200R | Chemical skin carcinogenesis | Influencing the ratio of Treg/Th17 cells | 84, 85 | |
STAT3 | Hematopoietic system | Recruiting and promoting the proliferation of Tregs | 86, 87 | |
COX2 | Wilms' tumor | Increased Treg infiltration | 90 | |
c-MET | Melanoma | Increased TAN infiltration | 91 |
β-Catenin signaling
STAT3 signaling
PI3K/PTEN/AKT/mTOR signaling
p53 signaling
NF-κB signaling
RAS/RAF/MAPK signaling
Other signaling
Recruitment and differentiation of immunosuppressive cells
PI3K/PTEN/AKT signaling
RAS/RAF/MAPK signaling
KRAS signaling
Other signaling
Therapeutic targets for tumor-intrinsic signaling in cancer
Target | Therapeutic agent | Phase | Tumor type | Effect | Trial number | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BRAF | Vemurafenib | III | BRAF(V600) mutation-positive melanoma | Well tolerated | NCT01667419 | 92 |
BRAF/MEK | Vemurafenib + cobimetinib | Ib | Advanced BRAF-mutated melanoma | Safe and tolerable | NCT01271803 | 93 |
Vemurafenib + cobimetinib | III | Advanced BRAFV600-mutant melanoma | Improved progression-free survival, increased toxicity | NCT01689519 | 94, 95 | |
Dabrafenib + trametinib | III | BRAFV600-mutant metastatic melanoma | Durable (≥ 3 years) survival is achievable | NCT01584648 | 96 | |
Dabrafenib + trametinib | III | BRAFV600-mutant unresectable or metastatic melanoma | Survival advantage | NCT01597908 | 97 | |
Dabrafenib + trametinib | III | Metastatic melanoma with BRAFV600 mutation | Improved overall survival | NCT01597908 | 98 | |
Dabrafenib + trametinib | III | Melanoma with BRAFV600 mutation | Significantly lower risk of recurrence | NCT01682083 | 99 | |
Dabrafenib + trametinib | II | Untreated BRAFV600-mutant non-small cell lung cancer | Meaningful antitumor activity, manageable safety profile | NCT01336634 | 100, 101 | |
Dabrafenib + trametinib | II | BRAF-mutant melanoma | Longer progression-free survival and duration of response with a higher rate of grade 3/4 adverse events | NCT02130466 | 102 | |
MEK | Trametinib | II | Oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma | Clinical tumor responses | NCT01553851 | 103 |
IDO | Epacadostat | I | Advanced Solid Malignancies | Well tolerated, effectively normalized kynurenine levels | NCT01195311 | 105 |
Epacadostat | II | Advanced epithelial ovarian, primary peritoneal, or fallopian tube cancer | Well tolerated, no significant efficacy in ovarian cancer | NCT01685255 | 106 | |
Indoximod | I | Advanced solid tumors | Safe, best response was stable disease for > 6 months in 5 patients | NCT00567931 | 107 | |
Navoximod | Ia | Recurrent advanced solid tumors | Well tolerated, decreased kynurenine levels in plasma | NCT02048709 | 108 | |
Indoximod + docetaxel | I | Metastatic solid tumors | Well tolerated, no increase in toxicities or pharmacokinetic interactions | NCI #HHSN261201100100C | 110 | |
Indoximod + checkpoint inhibitors | II | Advanced melanoma | 52% overall response rate | NA | 109 | |
Navoximod + atezolizumab | I | Advanced cancers | Acceptable safety and tolerability | NCT02471846 | 111 | |
CTNNB1 (β-catenin) | NTRC 0066-0 | Xenograft model | CTNNB1 mutant cancers | Complete inhibition of tumor growth | NA | 112 |
STAT3 | Stattic + metformin | In vitro experiment | Brain cancer | Inhibited tumor initiating cells | NA | 115 |
Stattic + recombinant vaccinia virus VG9 | Xenograft model | Solid tumors | Superior antitumor ability | NA | 116 | |
PI3K | Duvelisib | I | Relapsed/refractory T cell lymphoma | Promising clinical activity and an acceptable safety profile | NCT01476657 | 117, 118 |
PI3K/mTOR | Dactolisib | In vitro and in vivo experiments | Glioblastomas | Antitumor activity | NA | 119 |
Omipalisib | In vitro experiment | Oncogenically transformed cells from neurocutaneous melanocytosis | Inhibited clonogenic growth | NA | 120 | |
Akt | Akti-1/2 | In vitro experiment | Breast cancer | An anticancer therapeutic strategy | NA | 121 |
NF-κB | QNZ | In vitro and in vivo experiment | Colorectal cancer | Decreased cell invasion and migration abilities as well as expression of metastasis-related markers | NA | 122 |
PDTC | In vitro and in vivo experiments | Multidrug-resistant breast cancer | Tumor growth inhibition | NA | 123 | |
SN50 | In vitro and in vivo experiments | Malignant brain tumor | Loss of oncogenesis, differentiation of stem-like cells | NA | 124 | |
TLR4 | Rapamycin | In vitro experiment | Colon cancer | Inhibited IL-6, PGE(2) production, and cell invasion | NA | 125 |