Background
Gastric cancer (GC), the most common gastrointestinal malignant tumor, is primarily characterized by anorexia, dyspepsia, weight loss and abdominal pain [
1]. H pylori infection and other various factors such environmental factors induce the pathogenesis of GC [
2]. However, despite improvements in surgery and chemotherapy for GC, the 5-year overall survival rate is still unsatisfactory [
3]. GC is usually accompanied by gastric precancerous lesions that are more prone to become cancerous in pathology. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated the role of microRNAs (miRNAs) in GC, such as miR-144 [
4], miR-532 [
5], miR-494 [
6], miR-449c-5p [
3], miR-129-3p [
7]. In human GC tissues, miR-365 reduction correlates with poorly differentiated histology, deep invasion and advanced stage [
8]. In addition, miR-365 was predicted to target TLR4 and inhibit its expression by in silico analysis in the present study.
Meanwhile, existing data have demonstrated the involvement of TLR4 in GC where the expression of TLR4 is closely related to the TNM stage and lymph node metastasis of GC [
9]. It has been reported in the literature that TLR4 promotes the occurrence of cancer by regulating the expression of the downstream protein interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) [
10,
11]. IRF3 is a well-defined signal transduction factor/transcription factor that is essential for the innate antiviral response. IRF3 promotes the nuclear translocation and activation of YAP by interacting with YAP and TEAD4 in the nucleus, thereby promoting the occurrence of GC [
12,
13]. Existing research indicates that Wnt3a may activate and regulate CDX2 expression through the WNT-YAP/TAZ signaling pathway, and thus play a key role in the maintenance of bovine TSC [
14]. DNA methylation was partly responsible for CDX2 silencing in GC [
15] and CDX2 also reduced the migration and invasion of GC cells [
16]. On the basis of the aforementioned information, we conducted a cascade of in vitro and in vivo assays based on the miR-365/TLR4/IRF3/YAP/CDX2 axis to identify novel biomarkers involved in GC tumor progression in order to improve the prognosis and further understand the exact molecular mechanism of GC.
Methods
Ethics statement
The current study was performed with the approval of the ethics committee of the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University. All participants signed informed consent documentation prior to sample collection. The animal experimental processes were approved by the Ethnic Committee of the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University and conducted in strict accordance to the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals published by the US National Institutes of Health.
Clinical sample collection
The study subjects consisted of 68 patients with GC hospitalized at the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University from April 2016 to September 2018, and 45 patients with atrophic gastritis. Their age was 32–73 years, with a mean age of 45.6 years, including 38 males and 30 females. The GC tissue and adjacent normal tissues (more than 5 cm from the tumor edge) were collected, and the surgically resected specimens were immediately stored in liquid nitrogen. All specimens were confirmed by pathological examination, and patients received no radiotherapy or chemotherapy before surgery.
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)-induced immortalized normal gastric mucosal epithelial cell line in vitro
Human gastric mucosal epithelial cells (GES-1) (C0355, ATCC, USA) were cultured in a high-glucose DMEM containing 10% FBS at 37 °C under 5% CO2 at constant temperature and humidity overnight. When cells reached 80–90% confluence, 0.3 mL of TNF-α was added to the culture well to induce GES-1 into gastric EMT-transformed model cells with a malignant transformation tendency, and the control group was added with an equal amount of distilled water.
shRNA screening
TLR4 gene sequence was retrieved in GenBank database, and shRNAs of TLR4 that specifically knocks down TLR4 gene fragments were designed (Table
1) and constructed into the pshRNA-Neo plasmid. The successfully constructed TLR4 gene silencing plasmid following enzyme digestion and sequencing was named sh-TLR4-1 and sh-TLR4-2. TLR4-shRNA vector and negative control vector were transfected into GSE-1 cells. RT-qPCR was employed to detect the content of TLR4 in cells to screen the most effective shRNA sequence.
Table 1
shRNA and negative control sequences
sh-TLR4-1 | 5′-CACGGCATCTTTACTGGCTTAGTCA-3′ |
sh-TLR4-2 | 5′-CATCTTCACAGAGCTGACTAACTTA-3′ |
negative control | 5′-TTCTCCGAACGTGTCACGTTT-3′ |
Cell culture and grouping
Human normal gastric mucosal epithelial cell line RGM-1 (GDC214350849-03, Guandao Biotech. Shanghai, China) and GC cell line MGC-803 (3111C0001CCC000227, Cell Resource Center, Institute of Basic Medical Research, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences), MKN-45 (3111C0001CCC000229, Cell Resource Center, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences), and HGC-27 (3111C0001CCC000279, Cell Resource Center, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences) were cultured in basic medium containing 8% DMSO and 20% FBS (12633012, Haoran Bio, Shanghai, China) in a 5% CO2 incubator at 37 °C. The cells at logarithmic growth phase were tested. The induced GES-1 cells were transfected with plasmids of NC mimic, miR-365 mimic, NC inhibitor + sh-NC, miR-365 inhibitor + sh-NC, miR-365 inhibitor + sh-TLR4, sh-NC, sh-TLR4, oe-NC, oe-TLR4, sh-NC + oe-NC group, sh-TLR4 + oe-NC and sh-TLR4 + oe-CDX2. The above plasmids were purchased from Dharmacon (Lafayette, CO, USA).
Animal model establishment
Wistar rats weighing 180–200 g were selected for establishing a rat model of GC related to chronic gastritis using helicobacter pylori suspension (50 μL, approximately106 CFU) and drinking water containing 100 mg/mL N-methylN-nitro-N-nitroso-guanidine (MNNG). GC model was established after fed for 4 to 6 months combined with MNNG. The process from gastric precancerous lesions to GC was simulated, during which the lesions in the stomach was observed and pathological intestinal metaplasia (atypical hyperplasia) and canceration were confirmed. The rats were then treated with NC agomir, miR-365 agomir, NC antagomir + sh-NC, miR-365 antagomir + sh-NC, miR-365 antagomir + sh-TLR4, sh-NC + oe-NC, sh-TLR4 + oe-NC and sh-TLR4 + oe-CDX2.
ELISA
The bottom of a kit (rat, ab208113, Abcam, USA; human NeoBioscience, EHC007.48, Shenzhen) was coated with specific IL-6 antibodies. The plasma and specific biotinylated IL-6 antibody combined with the IL-6 in the sample were added to the kit and incubated at room temperature, after which unbound biotinylated antibody was washed away and streptavidin-peroxidase conjugate was added. After the reaction, unbound conjugates were washed away. The tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) contained in color development solution can be catalyzed by streptavidin peroxidase to produce a blue conjugate, which turned yellow after the addition of acid stop solution. The density of the yellow conjugate was proportional to the IL-6 content in the sample at the bottom of the kit. The optical density (OD) value of the yellow solution was measured by a microplate reader, and a standard curve was drawn to calculate the IL6 content in the sample.
IL-1 content measurement was the same as above using IL-1 kit (rat, ab9722, Abcam, USA; human Cayman, 583311-96, Beijing, China).
Cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay
The cells were seeded into a 96-well plate at a density of 2 × 103 cells/well. A blank control group containing only medium and no cells was set for zeroing. After 24 h transfection, CCK-8 solution (10 μL) was added to each well at 0, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, and incubated for an additional 4 h at 37 °C. The absorbance at 450 nm was measured using a microplate reader (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA). The ratio of absorbance value in the experimental group to that in the control group was calculated and a cell viability curve was plotted.
Flow cytometry
On the second day after transfection, the cells of each group were detached with 0.25% trypsin which was terminated with RPMI-1640 medium containing 10% fetal bovine serum. Following after, the cells were centrifuged at 1000 r/min for 5 min, with the supernatant discarded, fixed with 70% pre-chilled ethanol to a concentration of 1 × 106 cells/mL, and then stained with 10 mL of Annexin V-FITC/PI (556547, Shanghai Shuojia Biotechnology Co., Ltd.) for 15–30 min in a refrigerator at 4 °C. Cell apoptosis was measured using flow cytometer (XL type, Conter Company, USA). Fluorescence was initiated by excitation at 488 nm (FITC) and 530 nm (FITC) and was measured at more than 575 nm (PI). The apoptosis rate was analyzed using flow cytometry software SYSTEM IIV 3.0 and presented as the percentage of the number of apoptotic cells in total number of cells.
Hematoxylin eosin (HE) staining
The rat gastric tissue was extracted, fixed, then embedded in paraffin conventionally, and cut into 4 µm sections. The sections were then dewaxed with xylene (xylene I for 5 min and xylene II for 5 min), and rehydrated in ascending series of alcohol (100% alcohol for 2 min, 95% alcohol for 1 min, 80% alcohol for 1 min, 75% alcohol for 1 min), washed with distilled water for 2 min and stained with hematoxylin for 5 min and rinsed under tap water. The sections were hydrolyzed for 30 s with hydrochloric acid ethanol, soaked in tap water for 15 min or 50 °C water bath for 5 min, and then stained with eosin for 2 min, followed by conventional dehydration, clearing, and mounting. Finally, the results were analyzed under an inverted microscope (XSP-8CA, Shanghai Optical Instrument Factory, Shanghai, China).
Plasma analysis
Blood sample was collected from the abdominal aorta of rats, and 6 mL of blood sample was collected into an EP tube, which was added with heparin for anticoagulation. The sample was centrifuged for 15 min and the plasma viscosity was measured after 2 h using a R-80A automatic flushing blood viscosity tester (Beijing Shidi Scientific Instrument Co., Ltd., Beijing, China). Another 2 mL of blood was collected with a biochemical tube and anticoagulated with potassium EDTA. Next, the amount of hemoglobin was measured with a fully automatic blood cell analyzer (Beijing Shidi Scientific Instrument Company, Beijing, China).
Gastric juice analysis
Gastric juice was diluted 50 times with 0.04 moL/L hydrochloric acid solution, after which 0.5 mL of diluted gastric juice was taken out and mixed with 2 mL of hemoglobin matrix solution at 37 °C and allowed to stand for 10 min. Afterwards, 5% trichloroacetamide (5 mL) was added, mixed and centrifuged, followed by addition of 5 mL of sodium carbonate solution. The absorbance at 640 nm was measured with a 721-type spectrophotometer (Shanghai Optical Instrument, Shanghai, China) to determine pepsin activity.
Nuclear-cytoplasmic fractionation assay
The cells were washed with Buffer A, then centrifuged at 500g for 5 min, lysed with BufferA + B (2: 1), mixed gently, and incubated for 5–10 min, followed by another centrifugation at 12,000g for 10 min (supernatant: cytoplasm; pellet: nucleus and cell membranes). The cells were washed twice with PBS, centrifuged at 12,000g for 10 min. Afterwards, Buffer C was employed to lyse cell membrane (the cells were quickly frozen in liquid nitrogen and thawed on ice for 10 min) which was centrifuged at 12,000g for 10 min (supernatant: cell nucleus; pellet: cell membrane) and washed with PBS. Additionally, the cells were treated with PRPA buffer on ice for 30 min, and centrifuged at 12,000g for 10 min (supernatant: cell membrane). Subsequently, Western blot analysis was employed to detect the the extent of IRF3 phosphorylation with Histone H3 employed as the internal protein reference for nuclear protein and GAPDH as the internal reference for cytoplasmic protein.
Dual-luciferase reporter assay
Bioinformatics was employed to analyze the binding relationship between miR-365 and TLR4, which was verified through dual-luciferase reporter assay. The binding sites between miR-365 and TLR4 were mutated, and TLR4 mutant plasmid was constructed for dual-luciferase reporter experiments. The artificially synthesized TLR4-3′UTR gene fragment was introduced into pMIR-reporter (Beijing Huayueyang Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Beijing, China) using the endonuclease sites SpeI and Hind III, and a complementary sequence mutation site of the seed sequence was designed on the TLR4 wild type (WT). After restriction endonuclease, T4DNA ligase was employed to insert the target fragment into the pMIR-reporter plasmid. The correctly sequenced luciferase reporter plasmids TLR4 WT and TLR4 MUT were co-transfected with miR-365 into HEK-293T cells (Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China). 48 h after transfection, cells were collected and lysed. The luciferase activity was detected with the luciferase detection kit (K801-200, Biovision Technologies, USA) and a Glomax20/20 luminometer fluorescence detector (Promega Corporation, USA). Three values of each sample were recorded: RLU1, firefly luciferase activity; RLU2, renilla luciferase activity, and RLU1/RLU2, the ratio of firefly and renilla activity.
Co-IP assay
Cells were lysed with RIPA lysis buffer and added with 1% cocktail (1: 100, sigma). After sonication, cells were lysed on ice at 4 °C, and then cell debris was removed by centrifugation. The cell lysate was incubated with 1 μg of antibody to IRF3 (1: 1000, ab68481, Abcam, UK), IgG (1: 2000, ab6721, Abcam UK), and 15 μL of protein A/G beads (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) for 2 h. After extensive washing, the beads were boiled at 100 °C for 5 min. Proteins were separated by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane (Millipore, Temecula, CA, USA), and then immunoblotted.
Immunohistochemistry
Tissue sections were heated in a 60 °C incubator for 1 h, dewaxed with xylene conventionally, hydrated with gradient ethanol, and incubated with 0.5% Triton in PBS at room temperature for 20 min. After antigen retrival under high pressure for 2 min, the sections were heated in 0.01 M citrate buffer (pH 6.0) at 95 °C for 20 min, and immersed in 3% H2O2 for 15 min to block exogenous peroxidase activity. Then the sections were blocked with 3% BSA blocking solution and incubated with the diluted primary antibodies: rabbit anti-mouse TLR4 (1: 500, ab13556, Abcam, UK) or rabbit anti-mouse CDX2 (1: 10,000, ab76541, Abcam, UK) at 37 °C for 2 h, followed by washing with PBS. Afterwards, the sections were then added with HRP-labeled goat anti-rabbit IgG secondary antibody working solution (ab6721, 1: 1000, Abcam, Cambridge, UK) for incubation in a humidified box at 37 °C for 30 min. After incubation, tissue sections were counterstained with hematoxylin (Shanghai Fusheng Industrial Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) at room temperature for 4 min, and the excess stain was rinsed under running water. Finally, 10% glycerol/PBS was employed to mount the slides, and the results were observed under a microscope. The immunohistochemical results were independently analzyed by two people using double-blinded fashion.
RT-qPCR
Total RNA was extracted using Trizol (15596026, Invitrogen, Car, USA), and then reverse transcribed into complementary DNA (cDNA) using a reverse transcription kit (RR047A, Takara, Japan). miRNA expression was detected according to the instructions of TaqMan® MicroRNA Assays (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA). Reverse transcription of 10 ng Sample RNA was performed using the purposeful stem-loop primers and TaqMan® MicroRNA Reverse Transcription Kit. Using cDNA as a template, TaqMan MicroRNA Assay and TaqMan® Universal PCR Master Mix were employed for RT-qPCR. The reaction sysytem was as follow: 95 °C for 2 min, followed by 45 cycles at 95 °C for 15 s, and 60 °C for 45 s. U6 was employed as an internal reference to normalize the results. The fold changes were calculated using relative quantification (the 2−ΔΔCt method) (Table
2).
Table 2
Primer sequences for RT-qPCR
miR-365 (human) | Forward: 5′-GCTGTCAACGATACGCTACGT-3′ |
miR-365 (rat) | Forward: 5′-GCAGTAATGCCCCTAAAAATCC-3′ |
U6 (human) | Forward: 5′-GCTTCGGCAGCACATATACTAAAAT-3′ |
U6 (rat) | Forward: 5′-GCTTCGGCAGCACATATACTAAAAT-3′ |
Reverse: 5′-CGCTTCACGAATTTGCGTGTCAT-3′ |
Western blot assay
The total protein was extracted from tissues and cells, and the protein concentration was measured using a BCA kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA). A total of 30 μg of total protein was subjected to polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and transferred onto a PVDF membrane (Amersham, USA). The membrane was blocked with 5% skim milk powder at room temperature for 1 h and incubated at 4 °C overnight with rabbit antibodies against TLR4 (2 ug/mL, ab13556, Abcam, UK), IRF3 (1 ug/mL, ab68481, Abcam, UK), phosphorylation of IRF3 (1 mg/mL, ab76493, Abcam, UK), YAP (10 mg/mL, ab76252, Abcam, UK), CDX2 (10 mg/mL, ab76541, Abcam, UK), E-cadherin (10 mg/mL, ab40772, Abcam, UK), N-cadherin (1 mg/mL, ab18203, Abcam, UK), Bax (1: 1000, ab32503, Abcam, UK) and Bcl-2 (1: 1000, ab32124, Abcam, UK). The membrane was washed 3 times with PBST (PBS buffer containing 0.1% Tween-20), 10 min each times. Subsequently, horseradish peroxidase-labeled secondary goat anti-rabbit IgG (10 mg/mL, ab6721, Abcam, UK) was added to the membrane for incubation at room temperature for 1 h. The membrane was washed 3 times with PBST buffer for 10 min each. After scanning and development with an optical luminometer (GE Healthcare, USA), the protein band intensities were performed using Image Pro Plus 6.0 software (Media Cybernetics, USA), followed by analysis of the relative protein expression.
Statistical analysis
SPSS 21.0 statistical software (IBM Corp. Armonk, NY, USA) was employed to analyze all experimental data. Measurement data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Comparison between two groups was performed using unpaired t test and that among multiple groups was performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Data comparison among multiple groups at different time points was performed by two-way ANOVA. p < 0.05 indicated the difference was statistically significant.
Discussion
GC remains a prevalent disease worldwide with a poor prognosis [
18]. GC is the second leading cause of cancer death after lung cancer [
19]. The prognosis is poor, with an average 5-year survival rate of less than 20%, mainly due to the late diagnosis [
20]. Therefore, early diagnosis of GC is particularly important in the diagnosis. Studying the mechanism of gastric precancerous lesions can help develop early clinical detection and diagnosis of GC. The survival rate of GC patients provides a reliable theoretical basis. In this study, in vitro and in vivo experiment demonstrated that overexpression of miR-365 could potentially reduce IRF3 phosphorylation and YAP-mediated CDX2 transcription, thereby alleviating gastric precancerous lesions.
The current study demonstrated that miR-365 showed low expression in gastric tissues and different GC cells in patients with atrophic gastritis. It is suggested that miR-365 may have a certain indicator role in gastric precancerous lesions, but no related mechanism has been studied. Consistently, previous studies also note that miR-365 is poorly expressed in gastric cancer and its upregulation can impede gastric tumorigenesis [
8]. Of the deletion and mutation of the miR-365 promoter, transcription factors Sp1 and NF-κB are essential for miR-365 transcription regulation [
21]. The TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway plays multiple roles in coronary microembolization [
22], gastroesophageal reflux disease [
23], and diabetic nephropathy [
24]. In GC, TLR4 is amplified in GC and can be employed as a biomarker for GC [
9]. Importantly, our work indicated that miR-365 can target TLR4 and inhibit its expression when retarding GC development. miRNAs might suppress EMT which contributes to metastasis during cancer progression [
25]. EMT is involved in tumor cell migration and intravasation to the blood in various tumors, but its process predominantly depends on different cancers and surrounding stimuli such as transcription factors and miRNA [
26]. miR-365 in present study was indicated to downregulate E-cadhein and Bcl-2 expression, EMT-related proteins. But its potential effect on GC metastasis requires further experiments. Similarly, a recent report also demonstrated that miR-365 could repress EMT in lung adenocarcinoma through targeting ETS1 [
27].
In recent years, Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have been highlighted for their role in immune reaction, where components of microorganisms such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are recognized by TLRs, thereby activating tumor cells [
28]. TLR4 is an important LPS receptor in gastric epithelial cell signaling transduction and promotes GC progression [
29]. TLR4 mediates IRF3 activation could induce the transcription of inflammatory factors for macrophage activation in GC [
11]. The absence of TLR4 also leads to reduced release of phosphorylated interferon-regulated transcription factor (p-IRF3) and interferon (IFN-β) [
30]. Interestingly, the current study unraveled molecular mechanism that overexpression of TLR4 promotes IRF3 phosphorylation to bind more YAP, activating CDX2. IRF3 was previously implicated as an agonist of YAP and IRF3 was positively correlated with YAP in gastric cancer [
12]. Amlexanox, a drug for inflammation, inhibits GC growth in a YAP-dependent manner. In addition, CDX2 contributes to gastric intestinal metaplasia, and is active in GC [
31]. But the interaction among CDX2, TLR4, YAP and IRF3 has rarely been discussed in the disorder and still requires more evidence to identify the direct or indirect relation between these molecules and miR-365.
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