Introduction
Stem cells in AC repair
Cell sources | Number of Cells | Supplement with | Follow-up | Pathology type | Delivery type | Results | Publication |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Autologous BMSCs | – | Platelet lysate | 24 weeks | Knee cartilage defects | IA injection | Pain and motion improvement, Significant cartilage and meniscus regeneration detected by MRI | [15] |
Autologous BMSCs | 4 × 107 | – | 12/24 weeks | Knee OA | IA injection | Significant improvement in MRI outcomes and clinical performance | [16] |
Autologous BMSCs | – | Collagen gel; periosteum | 12 months | Knee cartilage defects | Surgical delivery | Promote hyaline-like type of cartilage tissue regeneration, remarkable improvement in clinical symptoms | [12] |
Autologous BMSCs | 1 × 106, 1 × 107, 5 × 107 | – | 12 months | Knee OA | IA injection | Reduces Synovial Inflammation, The clinical symptoms of the 5 × 107 cell group were significantly improved | [17] |
Autologous BMSCs | 8–9 × 106 | – | 12 months | Knee OA | IA injection | Walking time without pain improved | [18] |
Autologous BMSCs | 4 × 107 | 2% human serum albumin | 6 months | Knee OA | IA injection | Alleviating pain and patient symptoms | [19] |
Autologous BMSCs | 6 × 107 ± 0.6 × 106 | – | 24 months | Knee OA | IA injection | Clinical outcome and knee cartilage thickness were significantly improved | [20] |
Autologous BMSCs | 1 to 10 × 107 | HA | 12 months | Knee OA | IA injection | Clinical and functional improvement of knee OA | [21] |
Autologous BMSCs | – | Platelet-rich fibrin glue | 6, 12 months | Cartilage Defects | Surgical implantation | Promote the repair of articular cartilage defects | [11] |
Autologous BMSCs | 1 × 107, 1 × 108 | Fibrin glue | 12 months | Knee OA | IA injection | Significant improvement in WOMAC and VAS scores | [22] |
Autologous BMSCs | 8–9 × 106 | 5 years | Knee OA | IA injection | Pain and walking distance were improved, the worse of knee were delayed | [23] | |
Autologous BMSCs | 5 × 106 | – | 2, 6, 12, 30 months | Knee, ankle, or hip OA | IA injection | MRI showed improved VAS and WOMAC scores | [24] |
Allogeneic BMSCs | 1.5–2 × 106 | – | 12 months | Knee OA | IA injection | Promote hyaline-like regeneration and clinical outcome | [25] |
Allogeneic BMSCs | 2.5 × 107, 5 × 107, 7.5 × 107, 1.5 × 108 | – | 1, 3, 6, 12 months | Knee OA | IA injection | Cell dose at 2.5 × 107 was the most effective among the doses tested for pain relief and clinical score | [26] |
Allogeneic BMSCs | 4 × 107 | Hyaluronic acid | 12 months | Knee OA | IA injection | Improvement in pain and cartilage quality | [27] |
Allogeneic BMSCs | 5 × 107, 1.5 × 108 | Hyaluronic acid/hyaluronan | 55/24 | Knee OA | IA injection | Pain alleviation and MRI evidence of meniscus regeneration | [4] |
Autologous ADSCs | 1 × 107, 2 × 107, 5 × 107 | 24 months | Knee OA | IA injection | Clinically safe and significant improvement in clinical symptoms | [28] | |
Autologous ADSCs | 4.3 × 106 | Platelet-rich plasma or fibrin glue scaffold | 28.6 months | Knee OA | Arthroscopic surgery | Better repair outcome and IKDC scores in the implantation MSC group on a fibrin glue scaffold | [29] |
Autologous ADSCs | 4.4 × 106 | Fibrin glue | 27.9 months | Knee chondral defects | Arthroscopic implantation | Significant improvement in clinical and MRI outcomes | [30] |
Autologous ADSCs | 2 × 106, 1 × 107, 5 × 107 | – | 6 months | Knee OA | IA injection | Low-dose ADSCs significantly improve pain and function | [31] |
Autologous ADSCs | 1.4 × 107 | – | 3-months | Knee OA | IA injection | Pain relief in osteoarthritic knees, significantly improved clinical outcomes in WOMAC and VAS scores | [32] |
Autologous ADSCs | 1 × 107, 5 × 107, 1 × 108 | – | 6 months | Knee OA | IA injection | Regeneration with hyaline‐like articular cartilage | [33] |
Autologous ADSCs | 5 × 107 | Ultrasound guidance | 24-month | Knee OA | IA injection | Long-term safety and efficacy | [34] |
Allogeneic hUCB-MSCs | – | – | 18.7 months | Medial unicompartmental knee OA | Surgical delivery | More effective in cartilage regeneration | [35] |
Allogeneic hUCB-MSCs | – | Hyaluronate | 48-week | Cartilage defects | Surgical delivery | Cartilage repair, pain and function improvement | [36] |
Allogeneic hUC-MSCs | 2 × 107 | 5% AB plasma | 24/48 weeks | Knee OA | IA injection | Improved clinical scores and MRIs | [37] |
Allogeneic hUC-MSCs | 1 × 107 | Hyaluronic acid | 6 months | Knee OA | IA injection | Improved clinical score | [38] |
Allogeneic hUCB-MSCs | – | – | 7 years | Knee OA | IA injection | Clinically safe and effective for cartilage regeneration | [39] |
Allogeneic hUCB-MSCs | 2.5 × 106 cells/cm2 | 4% HA (CARTISTEM®) | 36.1 ± 6.4 months | Knee OA | Surgical delivery | Significantly improved pain and joint function | [40] |
Infrapatellar fat pad-derived MSCs | 1.89 × 106 | Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) | 16 months | Knee OA | IA injection | Relievedpain in patients with OA | [41] |
Allogenic Wharton's jelly umbilical cord MSCs | – | Porcine type I/II collagen matrix scaffold (ChondrO-Gide) | 12 months | Knee cartilage injury | Surgical implantation | Induce hyaline-like regeneration | [42] |
Allogenic placental MSCs | 0.5–0.6 × 108 | – | 24 weeks | Knee OA | IA injection | Safe and clinical symptom improvement | [43] |
Synovial MSCs | 4.7 × 107 | – | 48 months | Knee cartilage defects | Arthroscopic transplantation | Significantly improved MRI, histologic features, and clinical scores | [44] |
Mesenchymal stromal cell homing
Engineered MSCs for targeted therapy
Genetically modified MSCs for targeted therapy
Surface engineering of MSCs by antibodies for targeted therapy
Peptide functionalization of MSCs for targeted modification
Ligand | Target | Application | Ref |
---|---|---|---|
Cartilage penetrating cationic peptide (CPC) | Fixed charge density (FCD) of cartilage | Rapid penetration in full cartilage, high absorption, and 7-day retention of CPC + 14 | [78] |
Supercharged green fluorescent proteins (GFPs) | Cartilage | Rapid transport into full-thickness cartilage and chondrocyte | [79] |
CDP-11R | Cartilage | Accumulation in the cartilage after systemic intravenous injection; alleviation 0f joint inflammation and off-target toxicity | [73] |
CBP peptide: LRELHLNNNC | Collagens | Targeting the extracellular matrix of inflamed tissues | [80] |
PIGF2_123–144 | ECM, collagen type II | Improved cartilage adhesion of MSCs | |
CAP peptide: DWRVIIPPRPSA | Chondrocytes | Plasmid DNA and exosome target delivery | |
Aggrecan-binding peptides peptide: RLDPTSYLRTFW, HDSQLEALIKFM | Aggrecan | Binding to chondrocytes and extracellular matrix | [72] |
Type II collagen binding peptide: WYRGRL | Collagen type 2 (CII) | Deep zone retention, increased half-life and retention in the cartilage | |
P15-1 peptide: STMMSRSHKTRSHHV | Hyaluronan (HA) | Inhibition of chondrocytes inflammation | [84] |
Monoclonal antibody (mAbCII) | Collagen type 2 | Enhanced collagen II binding and MMP-13 siRNA delivery for OA therapy | [85] |
Avimer M26 | Collagen II | Enhanced cartilage retention time | [86] |
Multi-arm Avidin (mAv) | Aggrecan-associated glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) | Penetration through the full thickness of cartilage |
Magnetic stem cell targeting
Model | MSC donor | Nanoparticles | External magnet | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
In vivo: rabbit and pig models of osteochondral defects | hBMSCs | Ferumoxide (Felidex®) | Magnetic force (0.6 T) | [93] |
In vivo: pig model of full-thickness cartilage defect | MSCs | Magnetic hydrogels | Magnetic force (1.5 T) for 10 min | [94] |
In vivo: human articular cartilage defect | hBMSCs | Ferucarbotran (Resovist®) | 1.0-T compact magnet for10min | [95] |
In vivo: rabbit model of a massive meniscal defect | Rabbit ADSCs | Ferucarbotran | Permanent magnet | [96] |
In vivo: knee cartilage defect model | hADSCs | Microrobot (Feraheme) | N.A | [99] |
In vivo: rabbit model of osteochondral defect | Rabbit BMSCs | Ferucarbotran | External magnetic device | [100] |
In vivo: rat model of sub-chronic skeletal muscle injury | hMSCs | Ferucarbotran | Magnetic strength (1.5 T) for 10 min | [101] |
In vivo: rat model of femoral fracture | Rat BMSCs | Ferucarbotran | Magnetic strength (5.07 T) for 10 min and 60 min | [102] |
In vivo: rabbit ulnar defect | Rabbit BMSC | Ferumoxide | Magnetic strength (1.5 T) for 10 min | [103] |
Ex vivo: porcine knee osteochondral defect implanted with hMSCs | hMSCs | Ferumoxide | N. A | [104] |
Ex vivo: human cartilage | hBMSC | Ferumoxide | Magnetic force (0.4 or 0.6 T) for 6 h | [105] |
Ex vivo: human osteochondral defects | MSCs | N-dodecyl-poly-ethylenimine-coated SPION ∼50–110 nm | Magnetic force (0.57 T) | [99] |