Background
Author | Franke et al. (1993)[6] | Albus et al. (1996)[4] | Mitrushina et al. (1996)[7] | Verdoux and Liraud (2000)[8] | Egeland et al. (2003)[9] | Reichenberg et al. (2008)[10] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Patients | 30 patients with schizophrenia (S) 15 unipolar non-psychotic patients (D) 30 control persons (Cont) | 27 patients with schizophrenia (S) 10 depressed patients (D), 17 patients with bipolar disorder (B) = 27 patients with affective disorder, 27 control persons (Cont). All patients were first episode. | 25 depressed patients. (D), 17 patients with mania (M), 21 patients with schizophrenia (S), 18 patients with schizoaffective disorder (SA), 22 patients with other psychosis (P) All patients had psychotic symptoms. | 20 patients with schizophrenia (S), 29 patients with other psychosis (P), 33 patients with bipolar disorder (B), 19 patiens with Major Depression (D) | 53 patients with schizophrenia (S), 50 patients with recurrent depression (D), 50 healthy controls (Cont) | 94 patients with schizophrenia (S), 15 patients with schizoaffective disorder (SA), 78 patients with bipolar disorder (B), 48 patients with major depression (D) |
Neuropsychological Test Battery | Wisconsin Card Sorting test (WCST), Verbal Fluency Test (VFT), Trail Making Test (TMT A and B), Digit Span Test (DST) | Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-R), WCST, Verbal fluency Test, Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS-R), California Verbal Learning Test, TMT, Stroop Test, Continous Performance Test, Span of Apprehension Test | Neurobehavioral Cognitive Status Examination (NCSE; Kiernan et al. 1987) | BEM-84 (Memory), WCST, STROOP | Continous Performance Test, dichotomic listening, STROOP, 2 Visual-motor coordination speed | WAIS-R, WMS-R, STROOP, TMT, Finger Tapping Test, Facial Recognition Test, Letter Fluency and Sentence Repetition Test |
Results | WCST, TMT, VFT: S,D < Cont TMT B: S < D | Visual-motor coordination: S < A A without psychotic symptoms = Cont A with psychotic symptoms = S | Memory, abstract thinking: distinct deficits in patients with schizophrenia (S < D) | Global memory functioning: S < D; verbal memory: S < P, B, D; WCST, STROOP: no differences | Speed and selective attention: S < Cont Speed: D < Cont Vigilance: D < S | S < SA < B < D |
Methods
Setting and sample
Depressive disorder
| |
Moderate or minor depression | 1 (1.4%) |
Remitted | 1 (1.4%) |
Minor depressive episode | 2 (2.7%) |
Moderate depressive episode | 14 (19%) |
Severe depressive episode without psychotic symptoms | 19 (25.7%) |
Severe depressive episode with psychotic symptoms | 6 (8.1%) |
Moderate episode | 6 (8.1%) |
Moderate episode without psychotic symptoms | 10 (13.5%) |
Severe depressive episode with psychotic symptoms | |
within a recurrent disorder | 3 (4.1%) |
unknown | 12 (16.2%) |
Schizophrenia
| |
Paranoid schizophrenia | 21 (55.3%) |
Hebephrene schizophrenia | 3 (7.9%) |
Catatone schizophrenia | 1 (2.6%) |
Undifferentiated schizophrenia | 3 (7.9%) |
Schizophrenia simplex | 1 (2.6%) |
Delusional disorder | 2 (5.3%) |
Acute polymorphe psychotic disorder | 3 (7.9%) |
Acute polymorphe psychotic disorder with schizophrenia | 1 (2.6%) |
Acute schizophreniform psychotic disorder | 2 (5.3%) |
Schizophrenic disorder at present manic | 1 (2.6%) |
Variables: | Major depression | Schizophrenia | Chi-Square | df | Signif. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sex: | |||||
Women | 38 (51.4%) | 17 (44.7%) | .440 | 1 | .507 |
Men | 36 (48.6%) | 21 (55.3%) | |||
Marital status: | |||||
Never married | 22 (31.4%) | 24 (63.2%) | 10.14 | 1 |
.001
|
Ever married | 48 (68.6%) | 14 (36.8%) | |||
Education: | |||||
Elementary education | 26 (37.1%) | 18 (47.4%) | 1.07 | 1 | .302 |
Higher education | 44 (62.9%) | 20 (52.6%) | |||
Work qualification: | |||||
Unskilled | 16 (23.2%) | 13 (34.2%) | 1.51 | 1 | .220 |
Skilled worker | 53 (76.8%) | 25 (65.8%) | |||
Employment status: | |||||
Unemployed | 26 (37.1%) | 17 (44.7%) | .593 | 1 | .441 |
Employed | 44 (62.9%) | 21 (55.3%) | |||
Disorder: | |||||
First admission | 50 (72.5%) | 36 (94.7%) | 7.71 | 1 |
.006
|
Multiple admission | 19 (27.5%) | 2 (5.3%) |
Instruments
Data analysis
Results
Demographic and clinical data
Variable | Diagnoses | M | SD | df | F | Significance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age | F2 | 33.50 | 12.14 | (1,110) | 9.826 |
.002
|
F3 | 41.07 | 12.08 | ||||
Age at onset | F2 | 29.58 | 11.71 | (1,106) | 3.786 | .054 |
F3 | 34.47 | 12.87 | ||||
Duration of illness | F2 | 4.17 | 7.10 | (1,106) | 2.199 | .141 |
F3 | 6.61 | 8.70 | ||||
Number of Hospitalisations | F2 | 1.05 | 0.23 | (1,105) | 5.666 |
.019
|
F3 | 1.67 | 1.58 | ||||
Total length of hospitalisations | F2 | 5.32 | 2.11 | (1,105) | 2.885 | .092 |
F3 | 8.16 | 10.18 | ||||
GAF | F2 | 55.08 | 12.86 | (1,101) | .234 | .630 |
F3 | 53.95 | 10.33 | ||||
BPRS | F2 | 37.00 | 6.82 | (1,100) | .268 | .606 |
F3 | 37.75 | 7.22 | ||||
Anxiety | F2 | 2.18 | 1.04 | (1,100) | 15.24 | .000 |
F3 | 3.19 | 1.37 | ||||
Depression | F2 | 1.68 | .96 | (1,100) | 32.43 | .000 |
F3 | 3.14 | 1.39 | ||||
Suicidality | F2 | 1.16 | .72 | (1,100) | 6.05 | .016 |
F3 | 1.64 | 1.07 | ||||
Hostility | F2 | 1.05 | .32 | (1,100) | 12.83 | .001 |
F3 | 1.39 | .79 | ||||
Grandiosity | F2 | 1.39 | 1.00 | (1,100) | 6.88 | .010 |
F3 | 1.05 | .28 | ||||
Suspiciousness | F2 | 2.21 | 1.09 | (1,100) | 12.83 | .001 |
F3 | 1.56 | .73 | ||||
Hallucinations | F2 | 1.58 | 1.73 | (1,100) | 5.62 | .020 |
F3 | 1.05 | .38 | ||||
Unusual thought | F2 | 1.63 | 1.08 | (1,100) | 7.72 | .000 |
F3 | 1.06 | .30 | ||||
Bizarre behaviour | F2 | 1.89 | 1.39 | (1,100) | 20.31 | .000 |
F3 | 1.06 | .39 | ||||
Conceptual disorganization | F2 | 1.26 | .60 | (1,100) | 4.15 | .044 |
F3 | 1.06 | .39 | ||||
SANS(F2) | F2 | 29.89 | 20.61 | |||
Single score | ||||||
SANS (F2) | F2 | 6.97 | 4.75 | |||
Total score | ||||||
MADRS (F3) | F3 | 19.04 | 7.85 | |||
HAMD (F3) | F3 | 17.28 | 6.99 |
Neuropsychological functioning
Variable | Diagnoses | M | SD | F | Significance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
VLMT | F2 | 5.68 | 1.96 | 11.20 |
.001
|
Immediate memory | F3 | 6.58 | 1.88 | ||
VLMT | F2 | 47.42 | 10.80 | 8.83 |
.004
|
Learning (1–5) | F3 | 50.16 | 10.41 | ||
VLMT | F2 | 9.21 | 3.27 | 8.71 |
.004
|
Free recall | F3 | 10.27 | 3.69 | ||
VLMT | F2 | .9442 | .0611 | .045 | .832 |
Embedded recall | F3 | .9277 | .072 | ||
RWT | F2 | 43.71 | 9.88 | 21.75 |
.000
|
Categories | F3 | 53.45 | 12.53 | ||
RWT | F2 | 36.29 | 15.83 | 8.65 |
.004
|
Letter | F3 | 43.43 | 14.16 | ||
Visualtest | F2 | 64.37 | 32.75 | 2.66 | .106 |
Immediate | F3 | 70.88 | 29.81 | ||
Visualtest | F2 | 54.76 | 34.94 | 4.64 |
.033
|
Short-term | F3 | 64.18 | 34.27 | ||
HAWIE | F2 | 11.51 | 3.45 | .388 | .535 |
Information | F3 | 11.69 | 3.33 | ||
HAWIE | F2 | 11.78 | 3.74 | 1.44 | .223 |
Similarities | F3 | 12.48 | 3.39 | ||
HAWIE | F2 | 9.61 | 4.45 | 2.77 | .100 |
Picture completion | F3 | 10.55 | 4.17 | ||
HAWIE | F2 | 9.31 | 4.30 | 1.45 | .232 |
Block design | F3 | 9.84 | 3.18 | ||
HAWIE | F2 | 8.14 | 2.66 | 12.16 |
.001
|
Digit symbol test | F3 | 10.18 | 3.18 | ||
STROOP: fwl | F2 | 44.76 | 7.77 | 16.63 |
.000
|
STROOP: fwl | F3 | 53.17 | 8.38 | ||
STROOP: fsb | F2 | 47.32 | 7.75 | 18.99 |
.000
|
STROOP: fsb | F3 | 51.99 | 9.37 | ||
STROOP: T-Score | F2 | 47.86 | 11.21 | .575 | .568 |
NOM | F3 | 49.41 | 9.12 | ||
STROOP: T-Score | F2 | 52.49 | 8.46 | .000 | .991 |
SEL | F3 | 52.34 | 9.25 | ||
STROOP: Age-related | F2 | 45.24 | 7.93 | 11.68 |
.001
|
norm fwl | F3 | 51.62 | 7.93 | ||
STROOP: Age related | F2 | 45.08 | 8.45 | 12.73 |
.001
|
norm fsb | F3 | 52.18 | 9.49 | ||
STROOP: Age related- | F2 | 47.03 | 8.68 | 12.30 |
.001
|
norm int | F3 | 53.09 | 7.08 |