Introduction
Methods
Neuroticism
Physical activity
Demographic characteristics and chronic medical conditions
Cognitive function
Statistical analysis
Results
Descriptive analysis
Variable | Overall N = 7,6851 | 0 Minutes N = 22851 | > 0 Minutes to < = 150 Minutes N = 25851 | > 150 Minutes N = 28151 | p-value2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age | 72.2 (6.2) | 72.6 (6.7) | 72.4 (6.3) | 71.7 (5.6) | < 0.001 |
Education | 12.4 (3.5) | 11.6 (3.4) | 12.4 (3.5) | 13.1 (3.6) | < 0.001 |
Medical Conditions | 1.11 (0.98) | 1.23 (1.03) | 1.11 (0.98) | 1.01 (0.93) | < 0.001 |
CESD-10 | 1.46 (1.93) | 1.98 (2.21) | 1.41 (1.88) | 1.08 (1.59) | < 0.001 |
Global cognition | 0.30 (0.70) | 0.15 (0.78) | 0.30 (0.67) | 0.41 (0.62) | < 0.001 |
Episodic Memory | 0.29 (0.83) | 0.17 (0.91) | 0.29 (0.80) | 0.39 (0.76) | < 0.001 |
Perceptual Speed | 0.35 (0.93) | 0.17 (0.93) | 0.36 (0.92) | 0.50 (0.91) | < 0.001 |
Neuroticism | 5.35 (2.27) | 5.77 (2.38) | 5.34 (2.26) | 5.01 (2.12) | < 0.001 |
Physical Activity (minutes) | 75 (0, 240) | 0 (0, 0) | 60 (30, 105) | 345 (225, 540) | < 0.001 |
Study Time (years) | 6.9 (3.5, 9.6) | 6.5 (3.4, 9.3) | 7.1 (3.5, 9.8) | 7.0 (3.6, 10.1) | < 0.001 |
Female | 4,803 (62%) | 1,638 (72%) | 1,670 (65%) | 1,495 (53%) | < 0.001 |
African American | 4,929 (64%) | 1,723 (75%) | 1,670 (65%) | 1,536 (55%) | < 0.001 |
Mixed effects regression models: global cognition, episodic memory, perceptual speed
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Participants | 7613 | 7626 | 7608 | 7608 | ||||||||
Total observations | 25,338 | 25,372 | 25,327 | 25,327 | ||||||||
β | SE | p-value | β | SE | p-value | β | SE | p-value | β | SE | p-value | |
Intercept | 0.493 | 0.014 | 0.000 | 0.464 | 0.018 | 0.000 | 0.478 | 0.018 | 0.000 | 0.484 | 0.018 | 0.000 |
Time | -0.049 | 0.002 | 0.000 | -0.054 | 0.003 | 0.000 | -0.053 | 0.003 | 0.000 | -0.053 | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Age | -0.034 | 0.001 | 0.000 | -0.034 | 0.001 | 0.000 | -0.034 | 0.001 | 0.000 | -0.034 | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Age*time | -0.004 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.004 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.004 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.004 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Sex | -0.124 | 0.013 | 0.000 | -0.108 | 0.013 | 0.000 | -0.126 | 0.013 | 0.000 | -0.126 | 0.013 | 0.000 |
Sex*time | 0.006 | 0.002 | 0.004 | 0.006 | 0.002 | 0.004 | 0.005 | 0.002 | 0.010 | 0.005 | 0.002 | 0.010 |
Race | -0.358 | 0.014 | 0.000 | -0.354 | 0.015 | 0.000 | -0.355 | 0.014 | 0.000 | -0.355 | 0.014 | 0.000 |
Race*time | -0.001 | 0.002 | 0.540 | -0.001 | 0.002 | 0.649 | -0.001 | 0.002 | 0.730 | -0.001 | 0.002 | 0.724 |
Education | 0.062 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.066 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.062 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.062 | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Education*time | -0.001 | 0.000 | 0.123 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.184 | -0.001 | 0.000 | 0.095 | -0.001 | 0.000 | 0.083 |
Medical conditions | 0.009 | 0.006 | 0.165 | 0.004 | 0.006 | 0.525 | 0.009 | 0.006 | 0.164 | 0.009 | 0.006 | 0.155 |
Medical conditions*time | -0.002 | 0.001 | 0.042 | -0.002 | 0.001 | 0.042 | -0.002 | 0.001 | 0.058 | -0.002 | 0.001 | 0.055 |
CESD | -0.010 | 0.003 | 0.000 | -0.018 | 0.003 | 0.000 | -0.010 | 0.003 | 0.000 | -0.010 | 0.003 | 0.000 |
CESD*time | -0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Neuroticism | -0.036 | 0.003 | 0.000 | -0.035 | 0.003 | 0.000 | -0.046 | 0.005 | 0.000 | |||
Neuroticism*time | -0.001 | 0.001 | 0.211 | -0.001 | 0.001 | 0.259 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.642 | |||
Medium PA | 0.030 | 0.016 | 0.054 | 0.023 | 0.016 | 0.134 | 0.015 | 0.016 | 0.343 | |||
High PA | 0.029 | 0.016 | 0.069 | 0.017 | 0.016 | 0.280 | 0.010 | 0.016 | 0.547 | |||
Medium PA*time | 0.003 | 0.003 | 0.208 | 0.003 | 0.003 | 0.236 | 0.004 | 0.003 | 0.159 | |||
High PA*time | 0.006 | 0.003 | 0.018 | 0.006 | 0.003 | 0.028 | 0.006 | 0.003 | 0.017 | |||
Medium PA*neuroticism | 0.013 | 0.007 | 0.060 | |||||||||
High PA*neuroticism | 0.017 | 0.007 | 0.010 | |||||||||
Medium PA*neuroticism*time | -0.001 | 0.001 | 0.319 | |||||||||
High PA*neuroticism*time | -0.002 | 0.001 | 0.189 |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Participants | 7585 | 7598 | 7580 | 7580 | ||||||||
Total observations | 25,104 | 25,138 | 25,093 | 25,093 | ||||||||
β | SE | p-value | β | SE | p-value | β | SE | p-value | β | SE | p-value | |
Intercept | 0.389 | 0.018 | 0.000 | 0.369 | 0.023 | 0.000 | 0.383 | 0.023 | 0.000 | 0.390 | 0.023 | 0.000 |
Time | -0.032 | 0.003 | 0.000 | -0.037 | 0.004 | 0.000 | -0.036 | 0.004 | 0.000 | -0.037 | 0.004 | 0.000 |
Age | -0.033 | 0.001 | 0.000 | -0.033 | 0.001 | 0.000 | -0.033 | 0.001 | 0.000 | -0.033 | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Age*time | -0.003 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.003 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.003 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.003 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Sex | -0.092 | 0.017 | 0.000 | -0.072 | 0.017 | 0.000 | -0.094 | 0.017 | 0.000 | -0.094 | 0.017 | 0.000 |
Sex*time | 0.007 | 0.003 | 0.005 | 0.007 | 0.003 | 0.008 | 0.007 | 0.003 | 0.009 | 0.007 | 0.003 | 0.009 |
Race | -0.282 | 0.019 | 0.000 | -0.277 | 0.019 | 0.000 | -0.279 | 0.019 | 0.000 | -0.278 | 0.019 | 0.000 |
Race*time | -0.004 | 0.003 | 0.184 | -0.004 | 0.003 | 0.226 | -0.003 | 0.003 | 0.255 | -0.003 | 0.003 | 0.249 |
Education | 0.049 | 0.003 | 0.000 | 0.054 | 0.003 | 0.000 | 0.049 | 0.003 | 0.000 | 0.049 | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Education*time | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.688 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.697 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.612 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.547 |
Medical conditions | 0.033 | 0.008 | 0.000 | 0.028 | 0.008 | 0.001 | 0.033 | 0.008 | 0.000 | 0.033 | 0.008 | 0.000 |
Medical conditions*time | -0.002 | 0.001 | 0.197 | -0.002 | 0.001 | 0.223 | -0.002 | 0.001 | 0.245 | -0.002 | 0.001 | 0.233 |
CESD | -0.005 | 0.004 | 0.224 | -0.015 | 0.004 | 0.000 | -0.004 | 0.004 | 0.236 | -0.004 | 0.004 | 0.301 |
CESD*time | -0.003 | 0.001 | 0.000 | -0.002 | 0.001 | 0.000 | -0.003 | 0.001 | 0.000 | -0.003 | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Neuroticism | -0.042 | 0.004 | 0.000 | -0.042 | 0.004 | 0.000 | -0.053 | 0.006 | 0.000 | |||
Neuroticism*time | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.619 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.556 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.043 | |||
Medium PA | 0.014 | 0.021 | 0.504 | 0.006 | 0.020 | 0.768 | -0.003 | 0.021 | 0.898 | |||
High PA | 0.024 | 0.021 | 0.253 | 0.011 | 0.021 | 0.598 | 0.003 | 0.021 | 0.899 | |||
Medium PA*time | 0.005 | 0.003 | 0.149 | 0.005 | 0.003 | 0.152 | 0.006 | 0.003 | 0.072 | |||
High PA*time | 0.006 | 0.003 | 0.064 | 0.006 | 0.003 | 0.073 | 0.007 | 0.003 | 0.033 | |||
Medium PA*neuroticism | 0.013 | 0.009 | 0.144 | |||||||||
High PA*neuroticism | 0.020 | 0.009 | 0.021 | |||||||||
Medium PA*neuroticism*time | -0.002 | 0.001 | 0.125 | |||||||||
High PA*neuroticism*time | -0.003 | 0.001 | 0.039 |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Participants | 7308 | 7315 | 7304 | 7304 | ||||||||
Total observations | 24,205 | 24,225 | 24,196 | 24,196 | ||||||||
β | SE | p-value | β | SE | p-value | β | SE | p-value | β | SE | p-value | |
Intercept | 0.772 | 0.017 | 0.000 | 0.765 | 0.022 | 0.000 | 0.778 | 0.022 | 0.000 | 0.779 | 0.022 | 0.000 |
Time | -0.059 | 0.002 | 0.000 | -0.061 | 0.003 | 0.000 | -0.060 | 0.003 | 0.000 | -0.060 | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Age | -0.045 | 0.001 | 0.000 | -0.045 | 0.001 | 0.000 | -0.045 | 0.001 | 0.000 | -0.045 | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Age*time | -0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Sex | -0.181 | 0.016 | 0.000 | -0.163 | 0.016 | 0.000 | -0.179 | 0.016 | 0.000 | -0.179 | 0.016 | 0.000 |
Sex*time | 0.005 | 0.002 | 0.012 | 0.005 | 0.002 | 0.014 | 0.005 | 0.002 | 0.024 | 0.005 | 0.002 | 0.023 |
Race | -0.656 | 0.018 | 0.000 | -0.657 | 0.018 | 0.000 | -0.658 | 0.018 | 0.000 | -0.658 | 0.018 | 0.000 |
Race*time | 0.013 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.013 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.013 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.014 | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Education | 0.090 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.093 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.090 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.090 | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Education*time | -0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Medical conditions | -0.023 | 0.008 | 0.004 | -0.028 | 0.008 | 0.001 | -0.023 | 0.008 | 0.004 | -0.023 | 0.008 | 0.004 |
Medical conditions*time | -0.004 | 0.001 | 0.000 | -0.004 | 0.001 | 0.000 | -0.004 | 0.001 | 0.000 | -0.004 | 0.001 | 0.000 |
CESD | -0.019 | 0.003 | 0.000 | -0.025 | 0.003 | 0.000 | -0.019 | 0.003 | 0.000 | -0.019 | 0.003 | 0.000 |
CESD*time | -0.001 | 0.001 | 0.006 | -0.001 | 0.001 | 0.064 | -0.001 | 0.001 | 0.008 | -0.001 | 0.001 | 0.008 |
Neuroticism | -0.033 | 0.004 | 0.000 | -0.033 | 0.004 | 0.000 | -0.035 | 0.006 | 0.000 | |||
Neuroticism*time | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.401 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.439 | -0.001 | 0.001 | 0.567 | |||
Medium PA | 0.011 | 0.020 | 0.565 | 0.005 | 0.020 | 0.817 | 0.002 | 0.020 | 0.904 | |||
High PA | -0.004 | 0.020 | 0.829 | -0.016 | 0.020 | 0.425 | -0.018 | 0.020 | 0.383 | |||
Medium PA*time | 0.000 | 0.003 | 0.918 | -0.001 | 0.003 | 0.855 | -0.001 | 0.003 | 0.864 | |||
High PA*time | 0.004 | 0.003 | 0.147 | 0.004 | 0.003 | 0.181 | 0.004 | 0.003 | 0.196 | |||
Medium PA*neuroticism | 0.004 | 0.008 | 0.650 | |||||||||
High PA*neuroticism | 0.004 | 0.008 | 0.671 | |||||||||
Medium PA*neuroticism*time | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.832 | |||||||||
High PA*neuroticism*time | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.618 |
Mixed effects regression models: stratified analysis by physical activity level
Little PA | Medium PA | High PA | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Participants | 2253 | 2556 | 2799 | ||||||
Total observations | 7094 | 8636 | 9597 | ||||||
β | SE | p-value | β | SE | p-value | β | SE | p-value | |
Intercept | 0.457 | 0.032 | 0.000 | 0.526 | 0.023 | 0.000 | 0.504 | 0.020 | 0.000 |
Time | -0.059 | 0.005 | 0.000 | -0.047 | 0.004 | 0.000 | -0.047 | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Age | -0.036 | 0.002 | 0.000 | -0.035 | 0.002 | 0.000 | -0.028 | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Age*time | -0.004 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.003 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.004 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Sex | -0.090 | 0.029 | 0.002 | -0.140 | 0.022 | 0.000 | -0.141 | 0.018 | 0.000 |
Sex*time | 0.003 | 0.005 | 0.539 | 0.010 | 0.004 | 0.005 | 0.003 | 0.003 | 0.333 |
Race | -0.338 | 0.033 | 0.000 | -0.369 | 0.024 | 0.000 | -0.351 | 0.020 | 0.000 |
Race*time | 0.009 | 0.005 | 0.086 | -0.005 | 0.004 | 0.214 | -0.002 | 0.003 | 0.484 |
Education | 0.074 | 0.004 | 0.000 | 0.061 | 0.003 | 0.000 | 0.056 | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Education*time | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.629 | -0.001 | 0.001 | 0.033 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.721 |
Medical conditions | 0.002 | 0.012 | 0.878 | -0.006 | 0.011 | 0.603 | 0.032 | 0.010 | 0.001 |
Medical conditions*time | 0.000 | 0.002 | 0.838 | -0.002 | 0.002 | 0.221 | -0.003 | 0.002 | 0.061 |
CESD | -0.005 | 0.005 | 0.264 | -0.012 | 0.005 | 0.008 | -0.012 | 0.005 | 0.007 |
CESD*time | -0.004 | 0.001 | 0.000 | -0.002 | 0.001 | 0.005 | -0.001 | 0.001 | 0.069 |
Neuroticism | -0.044 | 0.006 | 0.000 | -0.032 | 0.005 | 0.000 | -0.032 | 0.005 | 0.000 |
Neuroticism*time | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.436 | -0.001 | 0.001 | 0.289 | -0.001 | 0.001 | 0.102 |