To our knowledge, this is the first report on radiofrequency ablation (RFA) of atherosclerotic lesions. RFA is safe and modulates plaque vessel density and smooth muscle cell content in a rabbit atherosclerosis model.
Safety
Other than a small thrombus without vessel narrowing in one of the animals after RFA as evidenced by OCT, we did not observe any adverse events after treatment. RFA induced thrombus formation is frequently observed by OCT in preclinical and clinical renal denervation studies without adverse angiographic or clinical relevance [
6‐
8,
10,
18], whereas this was an incidental finding in our study. We performed RFA under continuous saline irrigation, possibly preventing blood clotting by lowering blood temperature. In addition, coagulation in pig and human blood may differ from rabbit blood [
19] and the heparin dose of 150 IU/kg given is considerably higher than normally administered to patients.
Apoptosis examination by TUNEL assay showed RFA induced double-stranded DNA breaks in all vascular layers without endothelial disruption. The current application of RFA exerted a rather local effect, reflected by persistent decellularization. This corresponds to the tissue ablation and cell depletion observed in previous studies performing RFA on the arterial vessel wall [
10,
11].
Vessel Density
Although the TUNEL assay confirmed that thermal energy indeed reached the adventitia, no significant decrease in vasa vasorum density was observed. In fact, adventitial vessel density was even higher in decellularized regions closest to the applied radiofrequent energy. This could be due to insufficient capillary degradation or a reactive angiogenic response in the adventitia after RFA, as described previously [
10]. In contrast, plaque vascularization was significantly decreased in RFA-treated regions 28 days after RFA. Leaky neovessels are the main origin of intraplaque hemorrhage leading to vulnerable plaque phenotypes and worse clinical outcome [
20]. Thus, RFA might serve as a means to decrease intraplaque hemorrhage in more advanced plaques. The discrepancy between adventitial and plaque (neo)vascularization may suggest that only more severe tissue ablation results in decellularization, thereby creating an environment that is less susceptible to vascular penetration. This finding is supported by the observation that—although the majority of the plaque was recellularized after RFA—local areas remained decellularized up to 28 days thereafter and showed lower vessel density than recellularized areas in the treated region.
Plaque Composition
Although RFA has been shown to increase collagen content and induce fibrosis in healthy arteries [
10], this was not observed in the present study. This may be due to the already relatively high collagen plaque content in this model. The unchanged collagen content may also explain the lack of difference in remodeling in both regions, since changes in the extracellular matrix are of key importance in the process of arterial remodeling [
16].
In contrast, RFA-treated regions showed a trend towards reduced overall cellularity after 24 h and macrophage content up to 7 days. After 28 days, no differences between both regions were observed. Most likely, cell death resulted in a secondary low grade inflammatory reaction to clear the plaque from debris [
11], culminating in comparable cellularity and macrophage content at long-term follow-up. Surprisingly however, RFA did not evoke a disproportionate inflammatory response, since macrophage content did not differ between RFA-treated and control regions at 7 and 28-day follow-up. This finding is in agreement with the considerable proportion of TUNEL positive nuclei, indicating apoptotic cell death [
21,
22]. These findings suggest that apart from the normally observed thermal coagulation necrosis [
23], apoptosis is at least to some extent responsible for cell death in the present study.
In addition, cap thickness was not affected by RFA. Although both methods show comparable cap thickness between the regions, the difference in absolute values can be explained by the observation that—in optical coherence tomography—high-fat plaques have irregular and not well-delineated borders [
24], as opposed to human plaques [
14]. This increases scattering on OCT images, decreasing the feasibility to clearly delineate the fibrous cap from the inner border of the lipid pool.
Importantly, although RFA treatment did not influence cap thickness, SMC content was decreased 7 and 28 days after RFA in both intima and media. While decreased SMC content could potentially compromise plaque stability [
2] and therefore needs to be carefully evaluated, it may hint at a potential benefit in preventing (re)stenosis in peripheral arterial disease (PAD) and coronary artery disease (CAD), where SMC proliferation is a key mechanism. Despite the latest advances in stent design, restenosis rates remain relevant with 10–20% at 12-month follow-up for coronary artery stents and significantly higher rates for peripheral stenting [
5]. Since plaque burden is not influenced by the current technique, further studies combining simultaneous radiofrequency energy delivery and balloon angioplasty could offer improved results.
Although the current study provides important insight in the effect of RFA on atherosclerotic plaques, we would like to discuss some of its limitations. Due to the limited numbers—especially up to 24 h after RFA—we were not able to compare vessel density in the subacute phase. Moreover, although serial detection of neovessels using OCT has been described [
25], capillaries were rather large (50–300 μm) as opposed to the rabbit neovessels in the current manuscript (~10 μm), hampering their reliable detection. In addition, atherosclerotic animal models, including the present, do not develop advanced atherosclerotic lesions, which limits translation to the human situation. Although it may be interesting to evaluate the effect on a more advanced plaque phenotype, the rabbit model offers us a good alternative approach to appreciate the effects on atherosclerotic plaques. Moreover, a longer follow-up period could be informative to show whether plaque composition (i.e., smooth muscle cell content) would eventually normalize and if plaque burden would be affected (i.e., would decrease). In this regard, serial morphometric measurements could provide insight into plaque burden over time. Finally, the local effect of RFA might limit its ability to influence plaque burden over the total treated region. Therefore, an approach with a more advanced RFA catheter that targets the whole circumference could be of interest.
In conclusion, radiofrequency ablation is safe in moderate atherosclerotic vessel disease. It leads to near-complete plaque decellularization in treated areas in the subacute phase, a decrease in plaque vessel density, and a major reduction in local smooth muscle cell content. Yet, 7 and 28 days after intervention, it does not reduce vasa vasorum or affect plaque volume, cellularity, cap thickness, or collagen content in a rabbit atherosclerotic model. Therefore, combining this technique with balloon angioplasty could be promising in the treatment of severe (re)stenosis in (peripheral) arterial disease.