Level of positive orientation and basic hope
In the whole study group of people with tinnitus the level of positive orientation ranged from 16 to 40 points, averaging 29.09 (SD = 4.67), i.e., the fifth sten according to Polish standards for the P Scale. Basic hope assumed values ranging from 36 to 76 points, averaging 58.64 (SD = 7.63), i.e., the sixth sten according to temporary sten norms for the general population.
Positive orientation and basic hope were significantly correlated with each other: r = 0.43; p < 0.001. The direction of the correlation was positive, i.e. higher values of positive orientation were accompanied by higher values of basic hope.
Impact of sociodemographic variables: gender, age, education, professional activity, partner/marital status, place of residence, and health-related variables: tinnitus duration, hearing loss (division due to lack/occurance of hearing loss), presence or absence of other diseases, on the level of positive orientation and basic hope was studied. Additionally, correlation coefficients between positive orientation and age were determined: r = 0.20; p < 0.01 and between positive orientation and tinnitus duration: r = 0.08; p > 0.05 as well as between basic hope and age: r = 0.05; p > 0.05 and between basic hope and tinnitus duration r = 0.08; p > 0.05.
Analysis shows that only age was significantly correlated with the level of positive orientation. The correlation had a positive direction, i.e. the level of positive orientation increased with age. In the case of basic hope, none of the variables was significantly correlated with its level.
Level of tinnitus annoyance
Tinnitus annoyance measured with the THI questionnaire ranged from 2 to 98 points, averaging 44.78 (SD = 21.13) so in accordance to Polish norm for the population of tinnitus sufferers, tinnitus had a low to moderate level in the studied group.
Tinnitus annoyance measured with the TFI questionnaire ranged from 3 to 90 points, averaging 42.52 (SD = 19.82). This means that, on average, tinnitus had a moderate impact (3rd degree of annoyance) on the lives of the subjects.
Relationship between positive orientation, basic hope and tinnitus annoyance
Relationship between positive orientation, basic hope and tinnitus annoyance was investigated by means of correlation analysis. The
r-Pearson correlation coefficients between the variables are presented in Tables
1 and
2.
Table 1Correlations between positive orientation, basic hope and tinnitus annoyance (THI)
Positive orientation | − 0.30** | − 0.30** | − 0.14 | − 0.30** |
Basic hope | − 0.11 | − 0.19* | 0.04 | − 0.14 |
Table 2Correlations between positive orientation, basic hope and tinnitus annoyance (TFI)
Positive orientation | − 0.09 | − 0.24** | − 0.33** | − 0.11 | − 0.12 | − 0.19* | − 0.21** | − 0.28** | − 0.24** |
Basic hope | − 0.08 | − 0.10 | − 0.11 | − 0.07 | − 0.05 | − 0.06 | − 0.11 | − 0.22** | − 0.12 |
Positive orientation was significantly and negatively related to tinnitus annoyance measured with THI questionnaire. The higher the level of positive orientation, the lower the level of tinnitus annoyance in the general, functional and emotional dimensions. There was also a significant, negative, though very weak correlation between basic hope and tinnitus annoyance in the emotional dimension.
Positive orientation was significantly and negatively related to tinnitus annoyance as measured with the TFI questionnaire. The higher the level of positive orientation, the lower the level of tinnitus annoyance in the general dimension and in the dimensions of control, cognitive functioning, relaxation, quality of life and emotions. There was also a significant negative correlation found between basic hope and tinnitus annoyance, but only in the emotional dimension.
Using regression analysis, the combined effect of positive orientation and basic hope on tinnitus annoyance was investigated. The potential influence of independent sociodemographic and biomedical variables (age, presence of additional illnesses, duration of tinnitus, education), as well as positive orientation and basic hope were also taken into account. In the first step, selected independent sociodemographic and biomedical variables were included in the model, in the second step, positive orientation was included in the model, and in the third step–basic hope was included in the model. Each time the significance of the model and the change of the explained variability were examined. Table
3 presents the results of regression analysis for tinnitus annoyance measured with THI and TFI questionnaires.
Table 3Regression coefficients for tinnitus annoyance (THI and TFI) depending on positive orientation, basic hope and selected sociodemographic and biomedical variables
Age | − 0.16 | − 1.99 | 0.048 | − 0.04 | − 0.56 | 0.576 |
Presence of illness | − 0.15 | − 1.90 | 0.059 | − 0.11 | − 1.42 | 0.156 |
Duration of tinnitus | 0.14 | 1.80 | 0.074 | 0.14 | 1.81 | 0.072 |
Education | − 0.12 | − 1.60 | 0.111 | − 0.16 | − 2.14 | 0.034 |
Positive orientation | − 0.27 | − 3.27 | 0.001 | − 0.23 | − 2.81 | 0.005 |
Basic hope | − 0.01 | − 0.13 | 0.897 | − 0.02 | − 0.19 | 0.853 |
In the case of tinnitus annoyance measured with the THI questionnaire, the first regression model, which included only selected independent sociodemographic and biomedical variables, was statistically significant:
F(4,171) = 4.10;
p < 0.01;
R2 = 0.066, adjusted
R2 = 0.058. The second model with the previously included variables and positive orientation
F(5,170) = 6.24;
p < 0.001;
R2 = 0.155, adjusted
R2 = 0.130 was also significant. After the inclusion of positive orientation into the model, the explained variability increased: Δ
R2 = 0.068. The third model included all the previous variables and basic hope
F(6,169) = 5.18;
p < 0.001;
R2 = 0.155, adjusted
R2 = 0.125. In this case, there was no increase in the explained variability (Δ
R2 = 0.000). Table
3 presents the regression coefficients obtained for the third model. They show that positive orientation is of key importance for tinnitus annoyance. Based on the high level of this variable, reduced tinnitus annoyance can be predicted. Among sociodemographic and biomedical variables, age turned out to be a significant predictor with age the declared tinnitus annoyance decreased. Also the presence of illnesses was of some importance. Healthy individuals tended to feel less tinnitus annoyance. However, no significant effect of basic hope on tinnitus annoyance measured with the THI questionnaire was observed.
In the case of tinnitus annoyance measured with the TFI questionnaire, the first regression model (only with selected sociodemographic and biomedical variables) was statistically significant: F(4,171) = 3.56; p < 0.01; R2 = 0.077, adjusted R2 = 0.055. The second model containing the previously included variables and positive orientation was also significant: F(5,170) = 5.06; p < 0.001; R2 = 0.129, adjusted R2 = 0.104, and an increase in the explained variability was recorded ΔR2 = 0.053. The third model containing all previous variables and basic hope was statistically significant: F(6,169) = 4.20; p < 0,01; R2 = 0.130, adjusted R2 = 0.099, but there was no increase in the explained variability (ΔR2 = 0.000) in it.
Analysis of the values of regression coefficients and their significance leads to the conclusion that positive orientation is of the greatest importance for the perceived tinnitus annoyance. Based on the high level of this variable, a reduced tinnitus annoyance can be predicted. Among the selected sociodemographic and biomedical variables, education was also an important predictor (people with higher education declare less tinnitus annoyance). However, no significant impact of basic hope on tinnitus annoyance measured with the TFI questionnaire was found, similarly as in the case of THI questionnaire.