Currently there are few properly designed and controlled randomized clinical trials investigating the efficacy of cannabis for gynecological symptoms, which limits clear guidance around clinical recommendations. Until such studies are undertaken, there is a reliance on evidence that is lower on the evidence pyramid, supported by a growing body of retrospective data, cohort studies, and surveys, reporting the positive effects of cannabis from patients with gynecological symptoms [
91]. Given poor symptom management [
15], long waiting times for endometriosis surgery in some jurisdictions [
29], and side effects of many medications for pelvic pain [
26], it is perhaps unsurprising that people with CPP are using cannabis as a substitute for, or in addition to, more orthodox treatments. A cross-sectional survey of 240 CPP patients recruited in an outpatient gynecology office reported that one-quarter of patients with CPP used cannabis regularly as an adjunct to prescribed medicines, with 96% reporting improvements in their symptoms, including 84% reporting improved muscle pain, 72% a reduction in irritability, depression, and anxiety, and 68% an improvement in sleep [
92]. Similarly, a cross-sectional survey of 484 endometriosis patients in Australia on self-management of endometriosis reported illicit cannabis was the most effective self-management strategy [
93]. In this survey, one in ten respondents reported utilizing illicit cannabis for therapeutic purposes to manage their endometriosis symptoms, with self-reported pain reduction rated at 7.6/10. In addition, over half (56%) of the cohort reported a 50% or more reduction in pharmaceutical medications typically used for endometriosis management [
93,
94]. From a retrospective, electronic record-based cohort study of 252 patients with self-reported endometriosis, cannabis use for decreasing pelvic pain was described, with inhaled delivery being the most common mode of administration [
95]. This preference for inhalation may be due to the rapid speed of onset of pharmacological effects for inhaled cannabis compared with oral forms [
96], which could provide better control for the sudden breakthrough pain that commonly occurs in endometriosis (so called ‘endo flares’). This study also suggested improvements in comorbid symptoms such as mood and gastrointestinal symptoms, common in those with endometriosis [
19], and had greater improvement for oral dosage forms compared with inhaled [
95], suggesting that tailoring the mode of administration to target specific symptoms is an important clinical consideration. During the COVID-19 pandemic, an international cross-sectional survey found that 51% of 1634 respondents with endometriosis used cannabis in the 3 months prior [
97]. Respondents with legal access were more likely to consume cannabis than those without and were also more likely to disclose their usage to healthcare professionals. In many of these studies, a deprescribing or ‘substitution effect’ is reported where uptake in cannabis usage results in a reduction in one or more pharmaceuticals [
94]. From a cross-sectional study of 213 participants in New Zealand, illicit cannabis use for managing pain and to improve sleep was reported in 95% of respondents, with over 80% (
n = 176/213) indicating that cannabis had reduced their normal pharmaceutical medication usage [
98]. Almost two-thirds (
n = 128/213) of respondents completely stopped a medication, most commonly analgesics (66%,
n = 85/128), with opioids (40%,
n = 51/128) being the most common analgesic stopped, followed by NSAIDs at 17% (
n = 21/128), antidepressants (16%,
n = 20/128), and benzodiazepines (15%,
n = 9/128) [
98]. In a separate study from Australia and New Zealand, 237 people with endometriosis reported substantial substitution effects utilizing predominantly illicit cannabis [
99], with a 50% or more reduction in usage being reported for those who currently or previously used opioid analgesia (66%,
n = 121/183), non-opioid analgesia (63%,
n = 147/233), neuroleptics (61%,
n = 37/60), and anxiolytic medications (47.9%,
n = 46/96).