Introduction
Method
Participants
Measures
Social isolation variables
Outcome measure (primary outcome)
Sociodemographic and psychiatric (controlled) variables
Statistical analyses
Results
Baseline descriptive results
Variables | Participants at 18-month follow-up (n = 224) | |
---|---|---|
Mean (SD) or % | N | |
Age | 39.97 (12.54) | 224 |
Gender (%) | ||
Male | 39.73% | 89 |
Female | 60.27% | 135 |
Ethnicity | ||
White British/Irish/other | 61.88% | 138 |
Black, Black British/Caribbean/African/other | 21.52% | 48 |
Asian, Asian British/Indian/Pakistani/Bangladeshi/ other, Chinese | 7.62% | 17 |
Mixed White/Black Caribbean, Mixed White/Black African, mixed White/Asian, other mixed, other ethnic groups | 8.97% | 20 |
Marital status | ||
Single/Separated/divorced/widowed | 74.55% | 167 |
Married/cohabiting | 25.45% | 57 |
UK born | ||
No | 24.89% | 55 |
Yes | 75.11% | 166 |
Housing | ||
Permanent/supported accommodation | 96.88% | 217 |
Unstable accommodation | 3.13% | 7 |
Contact with children under 16 | ||
No contact | 6.25% | 14 |
Contact with dependent children | 22.32% | 50 |
Having no children | 71.43% | 160 |
Educational attainment | ||
No qualification | 15.25% | 34 |
Other qualification | 50.67% | 113 |
Degree | 34.08% | 76 |
Employment/education status | ||
Not in employment/education/full time caring role | 43.89% | 97 |
Yes | 56.11% | 124 |
Loneliness score | 22.07 (4.50) | 224 |
Social network size | 4.97 (2.28) | 224 |
Number of psychiatric inpatient hospitalisations | ||
Never | 62.50% | 140 |
Once | 15.63% | 35 |
2 or more | 21.88% | 49 |
Number of years since first contact mental health services | ||
Less than 3 months | 16.07% | 36 |
3 months – 2 years | 16.07% | 36 |
2–10 years | 33.93% | 76 |
More than 10 years | 33.93% | 76 |
Current diagnosis | ||
Schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder/bipolar affective disorder/other psychosis | 30.14% | 66 |
Depression/anxiety disorder/post-traumatic stress disorder | 26.94% | 59 |
Borderline or emotionally unstable personality disorder/other personality disorder | 11.42% | 25 |
Other diagnosis | 31.51% | 69 |
BPRS total score | 43.30 (10.67) | 223 |
QPR total score | 51.21 (17.61) | 224 |
Loneliness and objective social isolation groups
The characteristics of people in different loneliness and objective social isolation groups at baseline
Variables | Loneliness groups | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Persistent loneliness group (Group 1) | Intermittent loneliness group (Group 2) | Never loneliness group (Group 3) | ||||||
Mean (SD) or % | N | Mean (SD) or % | N | Mean (SD) or % | N | P value | 95% CI | |
Age | 40.90 (11.49) | 36 | 36.54 (12.25) | 75 | 41.95 (12.68) | 113 | Group 1 vs. Group 3: 0.66 Group 2 vs. Group 3: 0.004b Group 1 vs. Group 2: 0.08 | Group 1 (37.01, 44.79) Group 2 (33.72, 39.36) Group 3 (39.58, 44.31) |
Gender | 0.25 | |||||||
Male | 27.78% | 10 | 44.00% | 33 | 40.71% | 46 | ||
Female | 72.22% | 26 | 5.00% | 42 | 59.29% | 67 | ||
Ethnicity | 0.77 | |||||||
White British/Irish/other | 62.86% | 22 | 56.00% | 42 | 65.49% | 74 | ||
Black, Black British/Caribbean/African/other | 17.14% | 6 | 25.33% | 19 | 20.35% | 23 | ||
Asian, Asian British/Indian/ Pakistani/Bangladeshi/ other, Chinese | 11.43% | 4 | 9.33% | 7 | 5.31% | 6 | ||
Mixed White/Black Caribbean, mixed White/Black African, mixed White/Asian, other mixed, other ethnic groups | 8.57% | 3 | 9.33% | 7 | 8.85% | 10 | ||
Marital status | < 0.001 | |||||||
Single/Separated/divorced/widowed | 88.89% | 32 | 86.87% | 65 | 61.95% | 70 | ||
Married/Cohabiting | 11.11% | 4 | 13.33% | 10 | 38.05% | 43 | ||
UK born | 0.99 | |||||||
No | 25.71% | 9 | 24.332% | 18 | 25.00% | 28 | ||
Yes | 74.29% | 26 | 75.68% | 56 | 75.00% | 84 | ||
Housing | 0.49 | |||||||
Permanent/supported accommodation | 100% | 36 | 96.00% | 72 | 96.46% | 109 | ||
Unstable accommodation | 0% | 0 | 4.00% | 3 | 3.54% | 4 | ||
Contact with children under 16 | 0.78 | |||||||
No contact | 2.78% | 1 | 8.00% | 6 | 6.19% | 7 | ||
Contact with dependent children | 27.78% | 10 | 20.00% | 15 | 22.12% | 25 | ||
Having no children | 69.44% | 25 | 72.00% | 54 | 71.68% | 81 | ||
Educational attainment | 0.11 | |||||||
No qualification | 2.71% | 9 | 13.33% | 10 | 13.27% | 15 | ||
Other qualification | 37.14% | 13 | 60.00% | 45 | 48.67% | 55 | ||
Degree | 37.14% | 13 | 26.67% | 20 | 38.05% | 43 | ||
Employment/education status | 0.002 | |||||||
Not in employment/education/full time caring role | 68.57% | 24 | 46.58% | 34 | 34.51% | 39 | ||
Yes | 31.43% | 11 | 53.42% | 39 | 65.49% | 74 | ||
Baseline loneliness score | 27.77 (2.13) | 36 | 23.52 (3.76) | 75 | 19.28 (3.15) | 113 | Group 1 vs. Group 3: <.001 Group 2 vs. Group 3: <.001 Group 1 vs. Group 2: <.001 | Group 1 (27.05, 28.49) Group 2 (22.66, 24.39) Group 3 (18.69, 19.87) |
Baseline social network size | 3.19 (2.10) | 36 | 4.73 (2.37) | 75 | 5.69 (1.93) | 113 | Group 1 vs. Group 3: <.001 Group 2 vs. Group 3: 0.003 Group 1 vs. Group 2: 0.001 | Group 1 (2.49, 3.90) Group 2 (4.19, 5.28) Group 3 (5.33, 6.05) |
Numbers of psychiatric inpatient hospitalisations | 0.49 | |||||||
Never | 69.44% | 25 | 64.00% | 48 | 59.29% | 67 | ||
Once | 19.44% | 7 | 13.33% | 10 | 15.93% | 18 | ||
More than 2 times | 11.11% | 4 | 22.67% | 17 | 24.78% | 28 | ||
Number of years since first contact mental health services | 0.08 | |||||||
Less than 3 months | 5.56% | 2 | 18.67% | 14 | 17.70% | 20 | ||
3 months – 2 years | 5.56% | 2 | 22.67% | 17 | 15.04% | 17 | ||
2–10 years | 41.67% | 15 | 32.00% | 24 | 32.74% | 37 | ||
More than 10 years | 47.22% | 17 | 26.67% | 20 | 34.51% | 39 | ||
Current diagnosis | 0.09 | |||||||
Psychosis or bipolar disordersc | 19.44% | 7 | 21.92% | 16 | 39.09% | 43 | ||
Depression or anxiety disordersd | 36.11% | 13 | 30.14% | 22 | 21.82% | 24 | ||
Personality disorderse | 16.67% | 6 | 13.70% | 10 | 8.18% | 9 | ||
Other diagnosis | 27.78% | 10 | 34.25% | 25 | 30.91% | 34 | ||
Baseline BPRS total score | 51.19 (12.62) | 36 | 44.77 (9.33) | 75 | 39.79 (9.23) | 112 | Group 1 vs. Group 3: <.001 Group 2 vs. Group 3: 0.0004 Group 1 vs. Group 2: 0.003 | Group 1 (46.93, 55.46) Group 2 (42.63, 46.92) Group 3 (38.06, 41.51) |
Baseline QPR total score | 35.06 (13.92) | 36 | 49.59 (16.83) | 75 | 57.43 (15.65) | 113 | Group 1 vs. Group 3: <.001 Group 2 vs. Group 3: 0.0013 Group 1 vs. Group 2: <.001 | Group 1 (30.34, 39.77) Group 2 (45.71, 53.46) Group 3 (54.52, 60.35) |
Variables | Objective social isolation groups | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Persistent social isolation group (Group 1) | Intermittent social isolation group (Group 2) | Never social isolation group (Group 3) | ||||||
Mean (SD) or % | N | Mean (SD) or % | N | Mean (SD) or % | N | P value | 95% CI | |
Age | 43.76 (10.06) | 28 | 40.29 (11.9) | 72 | 38.92 (13.26) | 124 | Group 1 vs. Group 3: 0.07 Group 2 vs. Group 3: 0.47 Group 1 vs. Group 2: 0.18 | Group 1 (39.86, 47.66) Group 2 (37.48, 43.10) Group 3 (36.57, 41.28) |
Gender | 0.23 | |||||||
Male | 25% | 7 | 43.06% | 31 | 41.13% | 51 | ||
Female | 75% | 21 | 56.94% | 41 | 58.87% | 73 | ||
Ethnicity | 0.75 | |||||||
White British/Irish/other | 50% | 14 | 59.15% | 42 | 66.13% | 82 | ||
Black, Black British/Caribbean/African/other | 28.57% | 8 | 22.54% | 16 | 19.35% | 24 | ||
Asian, Asian British/Indian/ Pakistani/Bangladeshi/ other, Chinese | 7.14% | 2 | 8.45% | 6 | 7.26% | 9 | ||
Mixed White/Black Caribbean, mixed White/Black African, mixed White/Asian, other mixed, other ethnic groups | 14.29% | 4 | 9.86% | 7 | 7.26% | 9 | ||
Marital status | 0.06 | |||||||
Single/Separated/divorced/widowed | 78.57% | 22 | 83.33% | 60 | 68.55% | 85 | ||
Married/ Cohabiting | 21.43% | 6 | 16.67% | 12 | 31.45% | 39 | ||
UK born | 0.02b | |||||||
No | 42.86% | 12 | 28.17% | 20 | 18.85% | 23 | ||
Yes | 57.14% | 16 | 71.83% | 51 | 81.25% | 99 | ||
Housing | 0.59 | |||||||
Permanent/supported accommodation | 96.43% | 27 | 98.61% | 71 | 95.97% | 119 | ||
Unstable accommodation | 3.57% | 1 | 1.39% | 1 | 4.03% | 5 | ||
Contact with children under 16 | 0.88 | |||||||
No contact | 7.14% | 2 | 5.56% | 4 | 6.45% | 8 | ||
Contact with dependent children | 17.86% | 5 | 26.39% | 19 | 20.97% | 26 | ||
Having no children | 75.00% | 21 | 68.06% | 49 | 72.58% | 90 | ||
Educational attainment | 0.18 | |||||||
No qualification | 28.57% | 8 | 15.49% | 11 | 12.10% | 15 | ||
Other qualification | 35.71% | 10 | 47.89% | 34 | 55.65% | 69 | ||
Degree | 35.71% | 10 | 36.62% | 26 | 32.26% | 40 | ||
Employment/education status | 0.01 | |||||||
Not in employment/education/full time caring role | 67.86% | 19 | 47.14% | 33 | 36.59% | 45 | ||
Yes | 32.14% | 9 | 52.86% | 37 | 63.41% | 78 | ||
Baseline loneliness score | 26.07 (3.78) | 28 | 22.65 (4.31) | 72 | 20.82 (4.19) | 124 | Group 1 vs. Group 3: <.001 Group 2 vs. Group 3: 0.004 Group 1 vs. Group 2: 0.0004 | Group 1 (24.61, 27.54) Group 2 (21.64, 23.66) Group 3 (20.08, 21.57) |
Baseline social network size | 1.75 (0.97) | 28 | 3.76 (1.78) | 72 | 6.40 (1.50) | 124 | Group 1 vs. Group 3: <.001 Group 2 vs. Group 3: <.001 Group 1 vs. Group 2: <.001 | Group 1 (1.38, 2.12) Group 2 (3.35, 4.18) Group 3 (6.13, 6.66) |
Numbers of psychiatric inpatient hospitalisations | 0.001 | |||||||
Never | 82.14% | 23 | 45.83% | 33 | 67.74% | 84 | ||
Once | 14.29% | 4 | 16.67% | 12 | 15.32% | 19 | ||
More than 2 times | 3.57% | 1 | 37.50% | 27 | 16.94% | 21 | ||
Number of years since first contact mental health services | 0.08 | |||||||
Less than 3 months | 17.86% | 5 | 13.89% | 10 | 16.94% | 21 | ||
3 months – 2 years | 17.86% | 5 | 13.89% | 10 | 16.94% | 21 | ||
2–10 years | 32.14% | 9 | 23.61% | 17 | 40.32% | 50 | ||
More than 10 years | 32.14% | 9 | 48.61% | 35 | 25.81% | 32 | ||
Current diagnosis | 0.03 | |||||||
Psychosis or bipolar disorder c | 14.81% | 4 | 39.44% | 28 | 28.10% | 34 | ||
Depression or anxiety disordersd | 37.04% | 10 | 25.35% | 18 | 25.62% | 31 | ||
Personality disorderse | 25.93% | 7 | 9.86% | 7 | 9.09% | 11 | ||
Other diagnosis | 22.22% | 6 | 25.35% | 18 | 37.19% | 45 | ||
Baseline BPRS total score | 49.21 (10.82) | 28 | 44.68 (11.48) | 71 | 41.19 (9.54) | 124 | Group 1 vs. Group 3: 0.0001 Group 2 vs. Group 3: 0.02 Group 1 vs. Group 2: 0.08 | Group 1 (45.02, 53.41) Group 2 (41.96, 47.39) Group 3 (39.49, 42.88) |
Baseline QPR total score | 41.54 (15.74) | 28 | 50.71 (17.44) | 72 | 53.69 (17.46) | 124 | Group 1 vs. Group 3: 0.001 Group 2 vs. Group 3: 0.25 Group 1 vs. Group 2: 0.02 | Group 1 (45.02, 53.41) Group 2 (50.58, 56.79) Group 3 (41.96, 47.39) |
The association between loneliness groups and self-rated personal recovery at 18-month follow-up
Variables | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coef. (95% CI) | P- value | Coef. (95% CI) | P-value | Coef. (95% CI) | p-value | Coef. (95% CI) | P-value | Coef. (95% CI) | p-value | |
Loneliness group | ||||||||||
Never severely lonely group | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
Intermittently severely lonely group | −9.80 (− 13.59, −6.02) | <.001b | − 9.69 (− 13.57, −5.81) | <.001 | −9.73 (− 13.88, −5.59) | <.001 | −8.73 (− 12.85, − 4.61) | <.001 | −7.78 (−11.80, − 3.75) | <.001 |
Persistently severely lonely group | −21.75 (− 26.58, − 16.93) | <.001 | − 21.46 (− 26.70, − 16.22) | <.001 | −19.83 (− 25.55, − 14.12) | <.001 | −16.27 (− 22.16, − 10.37) | <.001 | − 12.83 (−18.83, − 6.83) | <.001 |
Psychosocial variable | ||||||||||
Social network size | 0.12 (−.69, .93) | 0.77 | 0.05 (−.82, .91) | 0.92 | 0.14 (−.72, 1.01) | 0.75 | 0.05 (−.79, .89) | 0.91 | ||
Sociodemographic variables | ||||||||||
Age (years) | −0.3 (−.18, .13) | 0.75 | −0.06 (−.22, .10) | 0.47 | −.12 (−.28, .038) | 0.14 | ||||
Gender (Reference - male) | 0.03 (− 3.69, 3.75) | 0.99 | 0.81 (−2.86, 4.48) | 0.67 | 1.24 (− 2.33, 4.81) | 0.49 | ||||
Ethnicity | ||||||||||
White British/Irish/other | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||||
Black, Black British/Caribbean/African/other | 2.09 (−2.33, 6.51) | 0.35 | 2.09 (− 2.29, 6.47) | 0.35 | 0.53 (−3.80, 4.85) | 0.81 | ||||
Asian, Asian British/Indian/ Pakistani/Bangladeshi/ other, Chinese | 1.23 (−5.70, 8.17) | 0.73 | −0.76 (−7.65, 6.14) | 0.83 | −.65 (−7.34, 6.03) | 0.85 | ||||
Mixed White/Black Caribbean, mixed White/Black African, mixed White/Asian, other mixed, other ethnic groups | −3.26 (−9.57, 3.06) | 0.31 | −2.92 (−9.25, 3.41) | 0.36 | −4.28 (−10.46, 1.90) | 0.17 | ||||
Employment/education status (Reference - not in employment/ education) | 2.69 (−1.39, 6.76) | 0.20 | 2.62 (−1.44, 6.69) | 0.21 | 2.18 (−1.77, 6.13) | 0.28 | ||||
Educational attainment | ||||||||||
No qualification | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||||
Other qualifications | 1.52 (−3.94, 6.98) | 0.58 | 1.03 (−4.40, 6.46) | 0.71 | .91 (−4.35, 6.18) | 0.73 | ||||
Degree | 1.64 (−4.21, 7.49) | 0.58 | 1.16 (−4.63, 6.96) | 0.69 | 1.40 (−4.21, 7.02) | 0.62 | ||||
Psychiatric variables | ||||||||||
Number of psychiatric inpatient hospitalisations | ||||||||||
Never | Reference | Reference | ||||||||
Once | 1.87 (−2.97, 6.71) | 0.45 | 2.16 (−2.53, 6.86) | 0.36 | ||||||
2 or more | 5.21 (.56, 9.86) | 0.03 | 4.37 (−.17, 8.90) | 0.059 | ||||||
Number of years since first contact with mental health services | ||||||||||
Less than 3 months | Reference | Reference | ||||||||
3 months - 2 years | −3.60 (−9.87, 2.67) | 0.26 | −4.48 (−10.57, 1.61) | 0.15 | ||||||
2–10 years | −8.06 (−13.51, −2.60) | 0.004 | −8.20 (− 13.49, − 2.91) | 0.003 | ||||||
More than 10 years | −3.79 (−9.51, 1.92) | 0.19 | −4.84 (−10.41, .72) | 0.09 | ||||||
Baseline BPRS total score | −.19 (−.38, .0002) | 0.05 | −0.13 (−.31, .06) | 0.17 | ||||||
Baseline QPR total score | 0.22 (.10, .33) | <.001 | ||||||||
R2 adjusted | 0.273 | 0.270 | 0.244 | 0.286 | 0.329 |
The association between objective social isolation groups and self-rated personal recovery at 18-month follow-up
Variables | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coef. (95% CI) | P- value | Coef. (95% CI) | P-value | Coef. (95% CI) | p-value | Coef. (95% CI) | P-value | Coef. (95% CI) | p-value | |
Social isolation group | ||||||||||
Never socially isolated group | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
Intermittently socially isolated group | −3.53 (−7.68, .62) | 0.10 | −1.75 (−5.80, 2.30) | 0.40 | −0.64 (− 4.77, 3.48) | 0.76 | −2.13 (−6.37, 2.12) | 0.33 | −2.23 (−6.32, 1.85) | 0.28 |
Persistently socially isolated group | −16.35 (−22.18, − 10.53) | <.001b | −11.17 (− 17.19, − 5.16) | <.001 | −10.63 (− 4.77, 3.48) | 0.001 | − 10.75 (− 16.93, − 4.57) | 0.001 | −9.75 (− 15.71, − 3.79) | 0.001 |
Psychosocial variable | ||||||||||
Loneliness score | −.878 (− 1.33, −.43) | <.001 | − 0.52 (− 1.01, −.04) | 0.04 | − 0.12 (−.63, .38) | 0.63 | ||||
Sociodemographic variables | ||||||||||
Age (years) | 0.06 (−.10, .22) | 0.45 | 0.02 (−.14, .18) | 0.80 | −.05 (−.22, .11) | 0.51 | ||||
Gender (Reference – male) | −.37 (−4.22, 3.48) | 0.85 | 0.52 (−3.29, 4.34) | 0.79 | 1.23 (−2.46, 4.92) | 0.51 | ||||
Ethnicity | ||||||||||
White British/Irish/other | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||||
Black, Black British/Caribbean/African/other | 2.51 (−2.08, 7.09) | 0.28 | 2.55 (−1.99, 7.09) | 0.27 | 0.73 (−3.73, .18) | 0.75 | ||||
Asian, Asian British/Indian/ Pakistani/Bangladeshi/ other, Chinese | 0.89 (−6.33, 8.11) | 0.81 | −1.60 (−8.81, 5.61) | 0.66 | −1.92 (−8.85, 5.02) | 0.59 | ||||
Mixed White/Black Caribbean, mixed White/Black African, mixed White/Asian, other mixed, other ethnic groups | −1.62 (−8.22, 4.97) | 0.63 | −1.55 (−8.18, 5.08) | 0.65 | −3.47 (−9.91, 2.98) | 0.29 | ||||
Employment/education status (Reference - not in employment/ education) | 4.09 (−.08, 8.25) | 0.054 | 3.86 (−.31, 8.04) | 0.07 | 3.08 (−.95, 7.11) | 0.13 | ||||
Educational attainment | ||||||||||
No qualification | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||||
Other qualifications | 1.30 (−4.37, 6.97) | 0.65 | 0.59 (−5.04, 6.22) | 0.84 | .30 (−5.12, 5.71) | 0.91 | ||||
Degree | 1.89 (−4.19, 7.98) | 0.54 | 1.26 (−4.78, 7.29) | 0.68 | 1.36 (−4.45, 7.16) | 0.65 | ||||
Psychiatric variables | ||||||||||
Number of psychiatric inpatient hospitalisations | ||||||||||
Never | Reference | Reference | ||||||||
Once | 2.06 (−3.00, 7.12) | 0.42 | 2.31 (−2.57, 7.18) | 0.35 | ||||||
More than 2 times | 4.92 (−.13, 9.96) | 0.056 | 4.50 (−.36, 9.35) | 0.07 | ||||||
Number of years since first contact with mental health services | ||||||||||
Less than 3 months | Reference | Reference | ||||||||
3 months - 2 years | −3.77 (−10.29, 2.75) | 0.26 | −4.86 (−11.14, 1.43) | 0.13 | ||||||
2–10 years | −9.31 (−14.97, −3.64) | 0.001 | −9.56 (− 15.01, − 4.12) | 0.001 | ||||||
More than 10 years | −4.56 (−10.49, 1.38) | 0.13 | −5.90 (− 11.64, −.15) | 0.04 | ||||||
Baseline BPRS total score | −0.20 (−.41, .0002) | 0.050 | −0.17 (−.36, .03) | 0.10 | ||||||
Baseline QPR total score | 0.26 (.14, .38) | <.001 | ||||||||
R2 adjusted | 0.115 | 0.188 | 0.182 | 0.227 | 0.285 |