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Open Access 01.12.2021 | Research

Antiplasmodial, antimalarial activities and toxicity of African medicinal plants: a systematic review of literature

verfasst von: Elahe Tajbakhsh, Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti, Parya Kheyri, Saeed Nezaratizade, David S. Lindsay, Faham Khamesipour

Erschienen in: Malaria Journal | Ausgabe 1/2021

Abstract

Background

Malaria still constitutes a major public health menace, especially in tropical and subtropical countries. Close to half a million people mainly children in Africa, die every year from the disease. With the rising resistance to frontline drugs (artemisinin-based combinations), there is a need to accelerate the discovery and development of newer anti-malarial drugs. A systematic review was conducted to identify the African medicinal plants with significant antiplasmodial and/or anti-malarial activity, toxicity, as wells as assessing the variation in their activity between study designs (in vitro and in vivo).

Methods

Key health-related databases including Google Scholar, PubMed, PubMed Central, and Science Direct were searched for relevant literature on the antiplasmodial and anti-malarial activities of African medicinal plants.

Results

In total, 200 research articles were identified, a majority of which were studies conducted in Nigeria. The selected research articles constituted 722 independent experiments evaluating 502 plant species. Of the 722 studies, 81.9%, 12.4%, and 5.5% were in vitro, in vivo, and combined in vitro and in vivo, respectively. The most frequently investigated plant species were Azadirachta indica, Zanthoxylum chalybeum, Picrilima nitida, and Nauclea latifolia meanwhile Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Annonaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Meliaceae, and Lamiaceae were the most frequently investigated plant families. Overall, 248 (34.3%), 241 (33.4%), and 233 (32.3%) of the studies reported very good, good, and moderate activity, respectively. Alchornea cordifolia, Flueggea virosa, Cryptolepis sanguinolenta, Zanthoxylum chalybeum, and Maytenus senegalensis gave consistently very good activity across the different studies. In all, only 31 (4.3%) of studies involved pure compounds and these had significantly (p = 0.044) higher antiplasmodial activity relative to crude extracts. Out of the 198 plant species tested for toxicity, 52 (26.3%) demonstrated some degree of toxicity, with toxicity most frequently reported with Azadirachta indica and Vernonia amygdalina. These species were equally the most frequently inactive plants reported. The leaves were the most frequently reported toxic part of plants used. Furthermore, toxicity was observed to decrease with increasing antiplasmodial activity.

Conclusions

Although there are many indigenous plants with considerable antiplasmodial and anti-malarial activity, the progress in the development of new anti-malarial drugs from African medicinal plants is still slothful, with only one clinical trial with Cochlospermum planchonii (Bixaceae) conducted to date. There is, therefore, the need to scale up anti-malarial drug discovery in the African region.

Additional file 1: Table S1. In vitro and in vivo studies reporting inactive antiplasmodial or antimalarial activity. Table S2. List of active compounds identified from plants.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-021-03866-0.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

PRISMA

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis

Not done

Not specified

Selectivity Index

LD₅₀

Median lethal dose

IC₅₀

Half-maximal inhibitory concentration

CC₅₀

50% Cytotoxic concentration

LC₅₀

Lethal concentration

Background

Malaria still constitutes a major public health menace, especially in tropical and subtropical countries. Various species of Plasmodium, transmitted through the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito, cause malaria, including Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale, Plasmodium vivax, and Plasmodium knowlesi. Among these species, P. falciparum is the most virulent, responsible for the highest morbidity and mortality. It is also the predominant species in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), a region with the highest number of malaria cases and deaths in the world. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there were 228 million cases, and 405,000 malaria attributed deaths in 2018 [1]. In SSA, children and pregnant women are the most at-risk groups [1‐3].

Malaria can be treated using chemotherapy but there is widespread resistance to many of the drugs. The first case of resistance to artemisinins was reported in Cambodia in 2006 and has then spread to most of South-East Asia [4, 5]. The safety of chemoprophylaxis is also a major concern; for instance, primaquine, atovaquone, and doxycycline are contraindicated in pregnant women and children [6]. All these shortcomings necessitate the discovery and production of new drugs to treat malaria.

In the past 50 years, natural compounds including plant products, have played a major role in drug discovery and have provided value to the pharmaceutical industry [7]. For instance, therapeutics for various infectious diseases, cancer, and other debilitation diseases caused by metabolic disorders have all benefitted from many drug classes that were initially developed based on active compounds from plant sources [8]. Furthermore, quinine and artemisinin, and their synthetic derivatives which are the mainstay of anti-malarial chemotherapy, were also derived from plant sources. In malaria-endemic areas, especially in Africa, many people rely on herbal medicines as the first line of treatment [9]. The common reasons for their preference vary from the cost of standard drugs, availability and accessibility, perceived effectiveness, low side effect, and faith in traditional medicines [10].

Reviews of the antiplasmodial and anti-malarial activities of medicinal plants are needed to drive research into the discovery and production of new anti-malarial drugs. Only a few reviews of the antiplasmodial or anti-malarial activity of medicinal plants have been published in the scientific literature [11‐16]. These reviews focused only on studies with high antiplasmodial or anti-malarial activity and hardly report on their toxicity. The purpose of this study was to review medicinal plants with moderate to very good antiplasmodial and anti-malarial activities, as well as assess the variation in the activities between different methods. Furthermore, the toxicity of plant species is highlighted.

Methods

The literature was reviewed in search of scientific articles reporting antiplasmodial activities (IC₅₀, ED₅₀, LD₅₀, and parasite suppression rate) of medicinal plants used in Africa to treat malaria. The current study conforms to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines [17].

Search strategy and selection criteria

Relevant articles were searched in health-related electronic databases including PubMed, PubMed Central, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect using the keywords: Traditional herbs or Medicinal plants or Antiplasmodial activity or Antimalarial activity or Herbal medicine or Plasmodium.

The search was limited to studies published in English or containing at least an abstract written in English until May 2020. The titles and abstracts were subsequently examined by two reviewers, independently (parallel method) to identify articles reporting the antiplasmodial activity of medicinal plants. In the case of any discrepancy in their reports, a third reviewer was brought in to resolve the issue. Relevant papers were equally manually cross-checked to identify further references. The following data were extracted from the selected articles by the reviewers: plant species, plant family, place of collection of plant, parts of the plant used, type of study (whether in vitro, in vivo, or human), the extraction solvent used, IC₅₀ or ED₅₀ values, parasite suppression rate, isolated compounds, interaction with known malarial drugs (whether synergistic or antagonistic), and toxicity. Articles that did not report antiplasmodial or anti-malarial activity of medicinal plants as well as review articles were excluded. The entire selection process is presented in Fig. 1.

In this study, antiplasmodial activity pertains to studies performed in vitro using different strains of Plasmodium falciparum, meanwhile, anti-malarial activity is reserved for in vivo studies performed using mice and various parasite models (including Plasmodium berghei, Plasmodium yoelii, and Plasmodium chabaudi) and reporting parasite suppression rate.

Categorization of antiplasmodial and anti-malarial activities

For in vitro studies, the antiplasmodial activity of an extract was considered very good if IC₅₀ < 5 µg/ml, good 5 µg/ml ≤ IC₅₀ < 10 µg/ml, and moderate 10 µg/ml ≤ IC₅₀ < 20 µg/ml [18]. For in vivo studies, the anti-malarial activity of an extract is considered very good if the suppression is ≥ 50% at 100 mg/kg body weight/day, good if the suppression is ≥ 50% at 250 mg/kg body weight/day, and moderate if the suppression is ≥ 50% at 500 mg/kg body weight/day [18]. Antiplasmodial activities of 20 µg/ml and above for in vitro studies and anti-malarial ≥ 50% at > 500 mg/kg body weight/day for in vivo studies, were considered inactive.

Risk of bias in individual studies

The level of risk of bias for the study was likely to be high mainly because of differences in the studies and the methods used to determine the antiplasmodial or anti-malarial activity. The stains of Plasmodium used to assess the antiplasmodial or anti-malarial activity of the medicinal plants equally varied between studies. Furthermore, the extraction solvent, as well as the extraction yield of the plants in the different studies, was not the same, which may have accounted for the variation in the antiplasmodial and anti-malarial activities for the same plants but in the different studies.

Results

The PRISMA flowchart (Fig. 1) presents a four-phase study selection process in the present systematic review study. A total of 25,159 titles were identified in the initial search. After the title and abstract screening, 228 full-text articles were retrieved. Of these, a final 200 articles were identified for the review.

For this review, the evaluation of the individual plant species was considered as an independent study, so it is common for one article to have more than one study depending on the number of plant species evaluated. In all, there were 722 independent studies. Five hundred and ninety-on (81.9%) of the independent studies were in vitro (Table 1), 90 (12.4%) were in vivo (Table 2) and 40 (5.5%) were both in vitro and in vivo (Table 3). There was only one human study (clinical trial) conducted so far (Table 4). The selected research articles were from 31 African countries. Out of the 200 research articles reviewed, most of them were from Nigeria 58 (29.0%), Kenya 24 (12.0%), Ethiopia 13 (6.5%), Cameroon 12 (6.0%), Ivory Coast 11 (5.5%), D.R. Congo 10 (5.0%), and Burkina Faso 7 (3.5%) (Fig. 2). The studies cover the period from 1989 to 2020.

Table 1

In vitro antiplasmodial activity of African medicinal plants

Plant species	Plant family	Source	Country of study	Part of plant used	Extraction solvent	Antiplasmodial Activity	IC₅₀ or ED₅₀ or LD₅₀	Strain of Plasmodium Tested	Toxicity (value; assay)
Dicoma anomala subsp. Gerrardii	Compositae	[19]	South Africa	Whole plant	Methanol, Water, Hexane, Dichloromethane	Very good^a	1.865 µM IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, D10	Nd
Abutilon grandiflorum	Malvaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Roots	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Acacia mellifera	Fabaceae	[21]	Kenya	Inner Barks	Methanol	Very Good	4.48 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6	No
Acacia nilotica	Fabaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	13 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Acacia nilotica	Fabaceae	[23]	Sudan	Seeds	Methanol	Very Good	0.9–4.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, Dd2	No
Acacia polyacantha	Fabaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Root Barkss	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	13 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Acacia tortilis	Fabaceae	[24]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Moderate	13.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Acacia tortilis	Fabaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Very Good	4.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Acacia xanthoploea	Fabaceae	[25]	South Africa	Stem Barks	Acetone	Moderate	10.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum UP1 (CQ-R)	Nd
Acacia xanthoploea	Fabaceae	[24]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Moderate	17.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Acacia mellifera	Fabaceae	[24]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Moderate	12.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Amorpha fruticosa	Euphorbiaceae	[26]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	13.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Acampe pachyglossa	Orchidaceae	[20]	Kenya	Leaves	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	11 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Acanthospermum hispidum DC	Compositae	[27]	Burkina Faso	Stems, Leaves	Crude Alkaloid	Good	4–10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
		[28]	Ivory Coast	Stems and Leaves	Ethanol	Moderate	13.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1/Colombia Strain	Nd
		[29]	Republic of Congo	Leaves	Methanolic, Ethanol	Very Good	2.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	No
Achyranthes aspera	Amaranthaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	9.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Acmella caulirhiza	Compositae	[30]	Kenya	Whole plant	Dichloromethane	Good	5.201–9.939 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2, D6	Nd
Acridocarpus chloropterus	Malpighiaceae	[31]	Tanzania	Roots	Dichloromethane	Good	5.06 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Achyranthes aspera	Amaranthaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Root barks	Ethyl Acetate	Very Good	3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Adansonia digitata	Malvaceae	[20]	Kenya	Stem barks	Ethyl Acetate	Good	8.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Adenia cissampeloides	Passifloraceae	[32]	Ghana	Whole plant	Ethanol	Good	8.521 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7	Nd
Adhatoda latibracteata	Acanthaceae	[33]	Gabon	Stems	Dichloromethane	Very Good	0.7–1.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcbm W2	No
Aerva javanica	Amaranthaceae	[34]	Sudan	Whole plant	Petroleum Ether/Chloroform	Very Good	< 5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Aerva lanata	Amaranthaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Whole plant	Ethyl Acetate	Good	8.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Aframomum giganteum	Zingiberaceae	[33]	Gabon	Stems	Dichloromethane	Moderate	8.3–13.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcbm W2	No
Agathosma apiculata	Rutaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	5.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Ageratum conyzoides	Compositae	[24]	Kenya	Whole plant	Methanol	Moderate	11.5–12.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Ageratum conyzoides	Compositae	[30]	Kenya	Whole plant	Dichloromethane	Very Good	2.15–3.444 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2, D6	Nd
Ajuga remota	Lamiaceae	[35]	Kenya	Ns	Ns	Good^a	8.2 µM IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCA 20/GHA	No
Ajuga remota	Lamiaceae	[35]	Kenya	Aerial parts	Chloroform	Good	8.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCA 20/GHA	No
Alafia barteri	Apocynaceae	[36]	Nigeria	Leaves	Water	Very Good	1.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Albizia coriaria	Fabaceae	[30]	Kenya	Stem barks	Dichloromethane	Good	6.798–10.679 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2, D6	Nd
Albizia coriaria	Fabaceae	[24]	Kenya	Stem barks	Methanol	Moderate	15.2–16.8 µg/ml C₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Albizia gummifera	Fabaceae	[24]	Kenya	Stem barks	Methanol	Good	6.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Albizia gummifera	Fabaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Stem barks	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	15 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Albizia versicolor Welw.ex Oliv	Fabaceae	[37]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Very Good	2.12 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54	Nd
Alchornea cordifolia	Euphorbiaceae	[38]	Ivory Coast	Leaves	Ethanol	Very Good^a	0.2–0.5 μM IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcm29 Cameroon And Nigerian Strain	No
		[39]	Ivory Coast	Stems, leaves	Water, Ethanol, Pentane	Very Good	2.43–4.56 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcm29, Fcb1, Plasmodium falciparum CQ-S (Nigerian)	No
		[40]	D.R.Congo	Leaves	Water	Very Good	4.84 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Alepidea amatymbica	Apiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	12.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Aloe marlothii	Xanthorrhoeaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole plant	Dichloromethane	Very Good	3.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Aloe ferox	Xanthorrhoeaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Aloe maculata	Xanthorrhoeaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	12.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Aloe pulcherrima	Xanthorrhoeaceae	[41]	Ethiopia	Roots	N-Hexane, Chloroform, Acetone Ans Methanol	Moderate^a	18.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodiumfalciparum	Nd
Aloe secundiflora	Xanthorrhoeaceae	[24]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	15.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Alstonia boonei	Apocynaceae	[42]	Nigeria	Stem barks	Ethanol	Nd	nd	Plasmodium beghei NK-65	No
Alstonia boonei	Apocynaceae	[43]	Ivory Coast	Stem barks	Ethanol	Moderate	12.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCB1	Nd
Alstonia congensis	Apocynaceae	[44]	D.R. Congo	Leaves, Root Barks, Stem Barks	Water, Methanol	Very Good	2—5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Ampelocissus africana	Vitaceae	[20]	Kenya	Whole plant	Ethyl Acetate	Good	9.0 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Andrographis peniculata	Acanthaceae	[45]	Cambodia	Whole plant	Dichloromethane	Moderate	12.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Annickia kummeriae	Annonaceae	[31]	Tanzania	Leaves	Methanol	Very Good	0.12 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Anisopappus chinensis	Compositae	[46]	D.R. Congo	Whole plant	Methanolic and dichloromethane	Good	6.53 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum (3D7, W2), Plasmodium berghei berghei	No
Annona reticulata	Annonaceae	[47]	Cameroon	Roots	Ethanol	Very good	1.90 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	No
Annona muricata	Annonaceae	[48]	Ivory Coast	Leaves	Pentane	Moderate	8–18 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCM29, Plasmodium falciparum CQ-S (Nigerian)	Nd
		[49]	Cameroon	Leaves	Hexane	Very Good	2.03 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
		[47]	Cameroon	Stem barks	Ethanol	Very Good	1.45 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	No
Anogeissus leiocarpus	Combretaceae	[50]	Nigeria	Ns	Methanol, Water, Butanol, Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	10.94–13.77 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, K1	Yes (SI = 121; mouse [NBMH])
Anogeissus leiocarpus	Combretaceae	[51]	Ivory Coast	Leaves	Methylene Chloride	Very Good	3.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Anonidium mannii	Annonaceae	[49]	Cameroon	Twigs	Methanol	Very Good	2.04 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Ansellia africana	Orchidaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Leaves	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Anthocleista grandiflora Gilg	Gentianaceae	[37]	South Africa	Stem barks	Dichloromethane	Good	8.69 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54	Nd
Anthocleista nobilis	Gentianaceae	[52]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Moderate	10 µg/ml	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Anthocleista vogelii	Gentianaceae	[53]	Nigeria	Roots	Petroleum Ether	Good	9.50 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Arenga engleri	Arecaceae	[25]	South Africa	Stem barks	Dichloromethane	Very Good	1.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum UP1 (CQ-R)	Yes (ID₅₀ = 35 µg/ml; Monkey kidney cells)
Artabotrys monteiroae	Annonaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	8.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Artemisia afra	Asteraceae	[54]	Zimbabwe	Leaves	Petrolether/Ethylacetate	Moderate	8.9–15.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Pow, Dd2	Nd
		[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Good	5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
		[24]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Good	3.9–9.1 µg/ml C₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Artemisia annua L	Asteraceae	[24]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Good	4.7–5.5 µg/ml C₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Artocarpus communis	Moraceae	[55]	Cameroon	Stems, Leaves	Ethanol, Water, Dichloromethane, Methanol, Hexane	Very Good	0.67–8.20 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Asparagus virgatus	Asparagaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Aspilia africana	Asteraceae	[56]	Uganda	Shoots	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	9.3–11.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10, K1	Nd
Aspilia pruliseta	Compositae	[24]	Kenya	Root BARKS	Methanol	Good	6.8–9.7 µg/ml C₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Asystasia gangetica	Acanthaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	16 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Azadirachta indica	Meliaceae	[57]	Ivory Coast	Stems, leaves	Water	Very Good	2.35–6.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1 & F32	Nd
		[45]	Cambodia	Barks	Dichloromethane	Very Good	4.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
		[58]	Sudan	Leaves	Methanol	Very Good	1.7–5.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, Dd5	Nd
		[59]	Togo	Leaves	Ethanol	Very Good	2.48–2.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2, D6	Nd
Azanza garckeana	Malvaceae	[60]	Malawi	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Moderate	11·79 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum, Vl/S	Nd
Balanites aegyptiaca	Zygophyllaceae	[24]	Kenya	Root barks	Methanol	Good	8.9 µg/ml C₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Balanites aegyptiaca	Zygophyllaceae	[21]	Kenya	Root barks	Methanol	Very good	3.49 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6	No
Balanites maughamii	Zygophyllaceae	[25]	South Africa	Stem barks	Dichloromethane	Very good	1.94 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum UP1 (CQ-R)	Nd
Barringtonia racemosa	Lecythidaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	5.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Berberis holstii	Berberidaceae	[61]	Malawi	Roots	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Very good	0.17 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7	Nd
Berberis holstii	Berberidaceae	[24]	Kenya	Root barks	Methanol	Very Good	< 5 µg/ml C₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Bergia suffruticosa	Elatinaceae	[62]	Burkina Faso	Whole plant	Dichloromethane	Moderate	19.53 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 & W2	Nd
Berula erecta	Apiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	6.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
		[24]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Good	9.9 µg/ml C₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
		[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Methanol	Good	5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Bidens engleri	Compositae	[63]	Senegal	Leaves	Petroleum ether	Moderate	9–18 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FcM29, FcB1, Plasmodium vinckei petteri	Yes (IC₅₀ = 10 µg/ml; Vero cells)
Bixa orellana	Bixaceae	[45]	Cambodia	Leaves	Water	Good	9.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Boscia angustifolia	Capparaceae	[24]	Kenya	Stem barks	Water	Very good	1.4–4.7 µg/ml C₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Boscia salicifolia	Capparaceae	[26]	Kenya	Stem barks	Methanol	good	1.1–8.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Boswellia dalzielii	Burseraceae	[50]	Nigeria	Ns	Methanol, Water, Butanol, Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	14.59–15.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, K1	Yes (SI ≥ 101; Mouse [NBMH]
Boswellia dalzielii	Burseraceae	[62]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	18.85 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 & W2	Nd
Bridelia micrantha	Phyllanthaceae	[26]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Moderate	14.2–19.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Bridelia mollis Hutch	Phyllanthaceae	[37]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Very good	3.06 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumNF54	Nd
Brucea javanica	Simaroubaceae	[45]	Cambodia	Roots	Dichloromethane	Very good	1.0 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Bruguiera gymnorhiza	Rhizophoraceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	11.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Burchellia bubalina	Rubiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	18 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Caesalpinia bonducella	Fabaceae	[64]	Nigeria	Aerial Parts	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	16 µg/ml EC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Yes (SI = 0.29–0.69; mouse mammary tumour [FM3A])
Canthium setosum	Rubiaceae	[65]	Benin	Aerial Parts	Methylene Chloride	Very good	2.77–4.80 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 & K1	Nd
Capparis tomentosa Lam	Capparaceae	[37]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Very good	2.19 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54	Nd
Cardiospermum halicacabum	Sapindaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	20 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Carica papaya	Caricaceae	[66]	Nigeria	Leaves	Ethyl Acetate	Very good	2.96 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10, DD2	No
Carissa edulis	Apocynaceae	[21]	Kenya	Root barks	Methanol	Good	6.41 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6	No
Carpolobia alba	Polygalaceae	[53]	Nigeria	Roots	Dichloromethane	Good	7.10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Cassia abbreviata	Fabaceae	[60]	Malawi	Roots	Dichloromethane	Very Good	2·88 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Vl/S	Nd
Cassia alata	Fabaceae	[67]	D.R.Congo	Leaves	Ethanol, Methanol, Petroleum Ether, Chloroform	Very Good	< 0.1—5.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium Falciparum	Nd
Senna occidentalis L	Fabaceae	[68]	Mozambique And Portugal	Roots	N-Hexane	Moderate	19.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7	Nd
		[26]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Moderate	18.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
		[69]	D.R. Congo	Leaves	Petroleum Ether	Very Good	1.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
		[67]	D.R. Congo	Leaves	Ethanol, Methanol, Petroleum Ether, Chloroform	Very Good	< 0.1—0.25 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Cassia siamea	Fabaceae	[70]	Togo	Leaves	Water	Good	< 7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Cassia siamea	Fabaceae	[27]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Crude Alkaloid	Good	4–10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Cassia tora	Fabaceae	[23]	Sudan	Aerial parts	Methanol	Good	3.3–5.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, Dd2	No
Catha edulis	Celastraceae	[22]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Very Good	0.68 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Cedrelopsis grevei	Rutaceae	[71]	Madagascar	Leaves	Water	Moderate	17.5 mg/L IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Celtis integrifolia	Cannabaceae	[52]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Very Good	3.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodiumfalciparum	Yes (SI ≥ 0.5; HepG2 cells)
Centella asiatica	Apiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	8.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Centella asiatica	Apiaceae	[72]	Kenya	Root Barks	Dichloromethane	Moderate	14.9–15.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1, NF54	Nd
Cephalanthus natalensis	Rubiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	16.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Ceratotheca sesamoides	Pedaliaceae	[63]	Senegal	Leaves	Petroleum ether	Moderate	15–23 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FcM29, FcB1, Plasmodium vinckei petteri	Yes (IC₅₀ = 50 µg/ml; Vero cells)
Chrysophyllum perpulchrum	Sapotaceae	[43]	Ivory Coast	Stem Barks	Ethanol	Moderate	12.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumFCB1	Nd
Cinchona succirubra	Rubiaceae	[73]	S. Tome´ And Prı ´Ncipe	Barks	Petroleum Ether, Dichloromethane, Ethyl Acetate, Methanol	Good	< 10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum3D7 And Dd2	Nd
Cinnamonum camphora	Lauraceae	[57]	Ivory Coast	Cortex	Water	Moderate	9.37–16.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumFcb1 & F32	Nd
Cissampelos mucronata	Menispermaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Roots	Ethyl Acetate	Very Good	0.38 µg/ml IC50	Plasmodium falciparumK1	Nd
Cissampelos mucronata	Menispermaceae	[26]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Very Good	4.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumD6, W2	Nd
Cissampelos pareira	Menispermaceae	[24]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	5.2–6.5 µg/ml C₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumD6, W2	Nd
Cissampelos pareira	Menispermaceae	[74]	Kenya	Root	Methanol	Good	5.85–7.70 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumNF54, ENT30	Nd
Cissus populnea	Vitaceae	[50]	Nigeria	Ns	Methanol, Water, Butanol, Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	15.81–19.91 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum3D7, K1	Yes (SI ≥ 84, Mouse [NBMH])
Citropsis articulata	Rutaceae	[75]	Uganda	Root Barks	Ethyl Acetate	Nd	nd	Plasmodium falciparumFcb1	Nd
Clausena anisota	Rutaceae	[24]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Good	8.4–9.2 µg/ml C₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumD6, W2	Nd
Clausena anisota	Rutaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	18 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumD10	Nd
Clematis brachiata Thunb	Ranunculaceae	[37]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Good	5.36 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumNF54	Nd
Clematis brachiata Thunb	Ranunculaceae	[21]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Very Good	4.15 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumD6	No
Clerodendrum eriophyllum	Lamiaceae	[72]	Kenya	Root Barks	Dichloromethane	Very Good	2.7–5.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumK1, NF54	Nd
Clerodendrum eriophyllum	Lamiaceae	[24]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Very Good	< 1.8–3.9 µg/ml C₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumD6, W2	Nd
Clerodendrum glabrum E. Mey	Lamiaceae	[37]	South Africa	Leaves	Dicloromethane	Good	8.89 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumNF54	Nd
Clerodendrum glabrum var. glabrum	Lamiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	19 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumD10	Nd
Clerodendrum johnstonii	Lamiaceae	[24]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	8.5 µg/ml C₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumD6, W2	Nd
Rotheca myricoides	Lamiaceae	[76]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	4.0—8.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum(K39, ENT30, NF54, V1/S)	Nd
		[26]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	4.7–8.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumD6, W2	Nd
		[20]	Tanzania	Root Barks	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	11 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumK1	Nd
		[72]	Kenya	Root Barks	Dichloromethane	Moderate	10.9–15.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumK1, NF54	Nd
Clerodendrum rotundifolium	Lamiaceae	[24]	Kenya	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Good	< 3.9–15.7 µg/ml C₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumD6, W2	Nd
Clerodendrum rotundifolium	Lamiaceae	[77]	Uganda	Leaves	Ethyl Acetate	Very Good	0.03–0.21 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumNF54 & FCR3	Nd
Clutia abyssinica	Peraceae	[24]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	7.8–11.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Clutia hirsuta	Peraceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	15 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Clutia robusta	Peraceae	[24]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Good	3.4–7.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Cochlospermum planchonii	Bixaceae	[78]	Burkina Faso	Rhizomes	Methanol, Dichloromethane	Good^a	2.4–11.5 μg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7	Nd
Cochlospermum planchonii	Bixaceae	[51]	Ivory Coast	Roots	Methylene Chloride	Very Good	4.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Cochlospermum tinctorium	Bixaceae	[79]	Burkina Faso	Tubecles	Ns	Very Good	1–2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Cochlospermum tinctorium	Bixaceae	[79]	Burkina Faso	Tubercles	Water	Very Good	0.4–1.56 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcbl And F32	Nd
Cola caricaefolia	Malvaceae	[48]	Ivory Coast	Leaves	Pentane	Moderate	11–16 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCM29, CQ-S (Nigerian)	No
Combretum collinum	Combretaceae	[52]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Very Good	0.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodiumfalciparum	Nd
Combretum micranthum	Combretaceae	[57]	Ivory Coast	Stem, Leaves	Water	Very Good	0.88–1.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1 & F32	Nd
Combretum psidioides subsp. Psilophyllum	Combretaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Root Barks	Ethyl Acetate	Good	6.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Combretum zeyheri	Combretaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	15 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Commiphora africana	Burseraceae	[24]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Good	9.6–10.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Commiphora schimperi	Burseraceae	[26]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Very Good	3.9–5.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Commiphora schimperi	Burseraceae	[21]	Kenya	Inner Barks	Methanol	Very Good	4.63 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6	No
Conyza albida	Asteraceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Very Good	2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Conyza podocephala	Asteraceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	6.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Conyza scabrida	Asteraceae	[22]	South Africa	Flower	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	7.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Copaifera religiosa	Fabaceae	[33]	Gabon	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Moderate	8.5–13.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCB, 3D7	Yes (CC₅₀ = 4.87 µg/ml; human embryonic lung cells [MRC-5])
Cordia myxa	Boraginaceae	[52]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Good	6.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodiumfalciparum	Yes (SI = 0.5–0.9; HrpG2 cells)
Coula edulis	Olacaceae	[80]	Cameroon	Stem Barks	Methanol	Good	5.79–13.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, DD2	No
Crossopteryx febrifuga	Rubiaceae	[27]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Crude Alkaloid	Good	4–10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Crotalaria burkeana	Fabaceae	[22]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Good	9.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Croton gratissimus var. subgratissimus	Euphorbiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Very Good	3.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Croton lobatus	Euphorbiaceae	[65]	Benin	Roots	Methanol	Good	2.80–6.56 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 & K1	Nd
Croton macrostachyus	Euphorbiaceae	[30]	Kenya	Leaves, Stems	Dichloromethane	Very Good	2.72 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2, D6	Nd
Croton menghartii	Euphorbiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Very Good	1.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Croton pseudopulchellus	Euphorbiaceae	[25]	South Africa	Stem Barks	Chloroform	Very Good	3.45 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum UP1 (CQ-R)	Nd
Croton zambesicus	Euphorbiaceae	[55]	Cameroon	Stem Barks	Ethanol, Water, Dichloromethane, Methanol, Hexane	Good	0.88–9.14 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Croton zambesicus	Euphorbiaceae	[34]	Sudan	Fruits	Petroleum Ether/Chloroform	Very Good	< 5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Cryptolepis sanguinolenta	Apocynaceae	[81]	Guinea-Bissau	Leaves, Roots	Ethanol, Chcl3, Chloroform	Very Good	1.79 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1, T996	Nd
		[82]	Ghana	Roots	Ethanol	Very good^a	0.031 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1, Plasmodium berghei	Nd
		[83]	D.R. Congo	Root barks	Water, ethanol, chloroform	Very good	27–41 ng/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, K1, W2, Plasmodium berghei yoelii, Plasmodium berghei berghei	Nd
		[84]	Ghana	Roots	Hexane, ethanol, dichloromethane	Very good^a	0.2–0.6 μM IC₅₀	Plasmodium vinckei petteri, Plasmodium berghei ANKA	Nd
Cussonia spicata Thunb	Araliaceae	[22]	South Africa	Fruits	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	14 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Cussonia spicata Thunb	Araliaceae	[37]	South Africa	Root Barks	Dichloromethane	Very Good	3.25 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54	Nd
Cussonia zimmermannii	Araliaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Root Barks	Petroleum Ether	Very Good	3.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Cuviera longiflora	Rubiaceae	[80]	Cameroon	Leaves	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	13.91–20.24 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, DD2	No
Cyathala prostate	Amaranthaceae	[43]	Ivory Coast	Whole Plant	Ethanol	Moderate	12.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCB1	Nd
Cyathula schimperiana	Amaranthaceae	[24]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Moderate	5–17.6 µg/ml C₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Cymbopogon validus	Poaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	5.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Cyperus articulatus	Cyperaceae	[24]	Kenya	Tubers	Methanol	Good	4.8–8.7 µg/ml C₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Cyperus articulatus	Cyperaceae	[74]	Kenya	Rhizomes	Methanol	Good	4.84–8.68 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54, ENT30	Nd
Cyphostemma spp	Vitaceae	[86]	Namibia	Whole Plant	Methanol	Very Good	3.276 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7	Nd
Dacryodes edulis	Burseraceae	[80]	Cameroon	Leaves	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	6.45–8.62 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, DD2	No
Dacryodes edulis	Burseraceae	[85]	Cameroon	Root Barks	Methylene Chloride/Methanol	Very Good	0.37 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodiumfalciparum	No
Dichapetalum guineense	Dichapetalaceae	[65]	Benin	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	7.35- > 20 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 & K1	Nd
Dichrostachys cinerea Wight et Arn	Fabaceae	[37]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Very Good	2.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54	Nd
Dicoma tomentosa	Asteraceae	[62]	Burkina Faso	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane, Methanol	Good	7.04–7.90 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 & W2	Nd
Dicoma tomentosa	Asteraceae	[87]	Burkina Faso	Whole plant	Dichloromethane	Very Good	1.9–3.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium Falcipârum 3D7, W2, Plasmodium berghei	Nd
Diospyros abysinica	Ebenaceae	[75]	Uganda	Leaves	Ethyl Acetate	Nd	nd	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb2	Nd
Diospyros mespiliformis	Ebeneceae	[86]	Namibia	Leaves, Roots	Methanol	Very Good	3.179–3.523 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7	Nd
Diospyros mespiliformis	Ebeneceae	[37]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Very Good	4.40 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54	Nd
Diospyros monbuttensis	Ebenaceae	[88]	Nigeria	Leaves	Methanol	Very Good	3.2 nM	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Dombeya shupangae	Malvaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Root Barks	Ethyl Acetate	Good	7.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Dorstenia convexa	Moraceae	[56]	Cameroon	Twigs	Ethanol, Water, Dichloromethane, Methanol, Hexane	Good	0.28–8.95 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Dorstenia klaineana	Moraceae	[33]	Gabon	Stems	Methanol	Moderate	16.7–17.0 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcbm, W2	Yes (SI = 16.2–28.89; human embryonic lung cells [MRC-5])
Dracaena cambodiana	Asparagaceae	[45]	Cambodia	Stems	Dichloromethane	Good	8.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Drypetes natalensis	Putranjivaceae	[31]	Tanzania	Roots	Ethanol	Very Good	1.06 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Ekebergia capensis	Meliaceae	[22]	South Africa	Fruits	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
		[76]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Chloroform	Good	3.9—13.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K39, ENT30, NF54, V1/S	Nd
		[21]	Kenya	Inner Barks	Methanol	Very Good	3.97 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6	No
		[24]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Moderate	10.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Elaeis guineensis	Arecaceae	[32]	Ghana	Leaves	Ethanol	Very Good	1.195 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7	Nd
Elaeodendron buchananii	Celastraceae	[24]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Moderate	17.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Enantia chlorantha	Annonaceae	[55]	Cameroon	Stem Barks	Ethanol, Water, Dichloromethane, Methanol, Hexane	Good	0.68–14.72 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Enantia chlorantha	Annonaceae	[40]	DR Congo	Stem Barks	Water	Good	7.77 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Yes (CC₅₀ = 3.0 µg/ml; human embryonic lung cells [MRC-5])
Entandrophragma angolense	Meliaceae	[89]	Cameroon	Stem Barks	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	18.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Entandrophragma caudatum	Meliaceae	[25]	South Africa	Stem Barks	Dichloromethane	Very Good	2.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum UP1 (CQ-R)	No
Entandrophragma palustre	Meliaceae	[46]	D.R. Congo	Stem barks	Methanol	Moderate	15.84 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, W2, Plasmodium berghei berghei	Nd
Erigeron floribundus	Asteraceae	[48]	Ivory Coast	Leaves	Pentane	Good	4.3-10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCM29, Plasmodium falciparum CQ-S (Nigerian)	Nd
Erioglossum edule	Sapindaceae	[45]	Cambodia	Barks	Dichloromethane	Very Good	1.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Erythrina abyssinica	Fabaceae	[75]	Uganda	Barks	Ethyl Acetate	Nd	nd	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb3	Nd
Erythrina lysistemon	Fabaceae	[25]	South Africa	Stem Barks	Acetone	Very Good	4.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum UP1 (CQ-R)	Nd
Erythrina sacleuxii	Fabaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Root Barks	Ethyl Acetate	Very Good	3.0 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Erythrococca anomala	Euphorbiaceae	[43]	Ivory Coast	Leaves	Ethanol	Moderate	13.1 µg/dl IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCB1	Nd
Euclea divinorum	Ebenaceae	[24]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	6.9–12.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Euclea natalensis	Ebenaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Very Good	4.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Eucomis autumnalis	Asparagaceae	[22]	South Africa	Bulbs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	9.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Euphorbia hirta	Euphorbiaceae	[90]	D.R. Congo	Aerial Parts	Methanol, Hexane: Ethyl Acetate	Good^a	1.1—5.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	No
Euphorbia hirta	Euphorbiaceae	[70]	D.R. Congo	Whole Plant	Petroleum Ether	Very Good	1.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Euphorbia tirucalli	Euphorbiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Moderate	12 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Fadogia agrestis	Rubiaceae	[27]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Crude Alkaloid	Good	4–10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Fagara macrophylla	Rutaceae	[28]	Ivory Coast	Stem Barks	Ethanol	Very Good	2.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1/Colombia Strain	No
Fagaropsis angolensis	Rutaceae	[24]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Good	4.2–6.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Fagraea fragrans	Gentianaceae	[45]	Cambodia	Stems	Dichloromethane	Moderate	12.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Ficus capraefolia	Moraceae	[52]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Very Good	1.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Yes (SI = 0.4; HepG2 cells)
Ficus platyhylla	Moraceae	[50]	Nigeria	Ns	Methanol, Water, Butanol, Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	13.77–15.28 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, K1	Yes (SI ≥ 77; mouse [NBMH])
Ficus sur	Moraceae	[24]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Moderate	8.5–15.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Ficus sur	Moraceae	[76]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Chloroform, Hexane	Moderate	9.0–19.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K39 (CQ-S), ENT30, NF54, V1/S	Nd
Ficus thonningii	Moraceae	[29]	Republic Of Congo	Leaves	Methanol, Ethanol	Good	9.61 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	No
Ficus thonningii	Moraceae	[50]	Nigeria	Ns	Methanol, Water, Butanol, Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	14.09–25.06 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, K1	Yes (SI ≥ 103; mouse [NBMH])
Ficus sycomorus	Moraceae	[27]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Crude Alkaloid	Good	4–10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Flueggea virosa	Phyllanthaceae	[91]	Comoros	Leaves	Water/Methanol	Very Good	2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	No
		[26]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Very Good	2.2–3.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
		[22]	South Africa	Leaves, Twigs	Water	Moderate	11.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Fuerstia africana	Lamiaceae	[92]	Rwanda	Leaves, Stems	Methanol	Good	4.1–6.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, W2	Yes (SI = 1.9; human normal foetal lung fibroblast [WI-38)
		[21]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Very Good	3.76 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6	No
		[24]	Kenya	Whole Plant	Methanol	Very Good	0.9–2.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Funtumia elastica	Apocynaceae	[43]	Ivory Coast	Stem Barks	Ethanol	Very Good	3.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCB1	Nd
Funtumia elastica	Apocynaceae	[28]	Ivory Coast	Stem Barks	Ethanol	Very Good	3.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1/Colombia Strain	No
Funtumia latifolia	Apocynaceae	[75]	Uganda	Leaves	Ethyl Acetate	Nd	nd	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb4	Nd
Garcinia kola	Clusiaceae	[67]	D.R. Congo	Seeds	Ethanol, Methanol, Petroleum Ether, Chloroform	Good	1.02—15.75 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Garcinia kola	Clusiaceae	[69]	D.R. Congo	Stem Barks	Petroleum Ether	Very Good	1.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Gardenia lutea	Rubiaceae	[23]	Sudan	Leaves	Methanol	Good	3.3–5.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, Dd2	No
Gardenia sokotensis	Rubiaceae	[62]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Moderate	14.01 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 & W2	Nd
Glinus oppositifolius	Molluginaceae	[93]	Mali	Aerial parts	Chloroform	Moderate	15.52–18.70 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2 & 3D7	No
Gloriosa superba	Colchicaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	17 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Gnidia cuneata	Thymelaeaceae	[22]	South Africa	Stems	Dichloromethane	Moderate	15.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Gnidia kraussiana var. kraussiana	Thymelaeaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves, Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	10.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Gomphrena celosioides	Amaranthaceae	[65]	Benin	Aerial Parts	Methanol	Good	4.26–14.97 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 & K1	Nd
		[70]	Togo	Aerial Parts	Water	Moderate	< 15 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
		[20]	Tanzania	Whole plant	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	15 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Guiera senegalensis	Combretaceae	[57]	Ivory Coast	Stem, Leave	Water	Good	0.79–7.03 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1 & F32	Nd
Guiera senegalensis	Combretaceae	[94]	Mali	Roots	Chloroform	Very Good^a	< 4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Gutenbergia cordifolia	Asteraceae	[21]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Very Good	4.40 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6	No
Gynandropsis gynandra	Cleomaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Roots	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	14 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
H. suaveolens	Lamiaceae	[53]	Nigeria	Leaves	Petroleum Ether	Very Good	2.54 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Haplophyllum tuberculatum	Rutaceae	[23]	Sudan	Aerial Parts	Methanol	Very Good	1.2–1.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, Dd2	No
Harrisonia abyssinica	Rutaceae	[58]	Sudan	Stem Barks	Methanol	Good	4.7–10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, Dd3	Nd
		[72]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Dichloromethane	Good	4.4–5.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1, NF54	Nd
		[26]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	7.8–11.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
		[95]	Kenya	Barks/Roots/Stem	Water	Very Good	1.0 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium Knowlesi	Nd
Harrisonia perforata	Rutaceae	[45]	Cambodia	StemS	Dichloromethane	Good	6.0 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Harungana madagascariensis	Hypericaceae	[40]	D.R.Congo	Stem Barks	Water	Good	9.64 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Harungana madagascariensis	Hypericaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Roots	Ethyl Acetate	Very Good	4.0 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Helichrysum gymnocephalum	Asteraceae	[96]	Madagascar	Leaves	Essential Oil	In Active	25 mg/l	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1	Nd
Helichrysum cymosum	Asteraceae	[97]	South Africa	Leaves	Water, Essential Oil	Very Good^a	1.25 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCR-3	Yes
Helichrysum nudifolium	Asteraceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	6.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Hermannia depressa	Malvaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	6.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Hexalobus crispiflorus	Annonaceae	[98]	Cameroon	Stem Barks	Water	Very Good^a	2.0 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W6	Nd
Hippobromus pauciflorus	Sapindaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	5.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Holarrhena floribunda	Apocynaceae	[99]	Cameroon	Stem Barkss	Water, Ethanol	Good	1.02 − 18.53 μg/mL IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2,D6, FCR-3, 3D7	Nd
Hoslundia opposita	Lamiaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Root Barks	Petroleum Ether	Moderate	10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
		[26]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	15.2–25.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
		[75]	Uganda	Leaves	Ethyl Acetate	Nd	nd	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb5	Nd
Hunteria eburnea	Apocynaceae	[43]	Ivory Coast	Stem Barks	Ethanol	Very Good	2.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCB1	Nd
Hybanthus enneaspermus	Violaceae	[65]	Benin	Aerial Parts	Methanol	Moderate	2.57- > 20 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 & K1	Nd
Hymenocardia acida	Phyllanthaceae	[51]	Ivory Coast	Leaves	Methylene Chloride	Good	6.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Yes (SI = 6–10; rat skeletal muscle myoblast [L6])
Hypericum aethiopicum	Hypericaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves/Flowers	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Very Good	1.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Hypericum lanceolatum	Hypericaceae	[80]	Cameroon	Stem Barks	Methanol, N-Hexane, Ethyl Acetate, N-Butanol	Very Good	3.98 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2, SHF4	Nd
Hypoestes forskaolii	Acanthaceae	[24]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	4.3–6.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Hyptis pectinata	Lamiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves, Stem, Flower	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	17.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Icacina senegalensis	Icacinaceae	[100]	Senegal	Leaves	Methanol	Good	4.7–8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, 7G8	No
Isolona hexaloba	Annonaceae	[40]	D.R. Congo	Root Barks	Water	Moderate	15.28 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Khaya grandifoliola	Meliaceae	[101]	Cameroon	Barks, Seeds	Methanol-Methylene Chloride	Good^a	1.25—9.63 μg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Khaya senegalensis	Meliaceae	[50]	Nigeria	Ns	Methanol, Water, Butanol, Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	15.46–28.12 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, K1	Yes (SI ≥ 69; mouse [NBMH])
Kigelia africana	Bignoniaceae	[24]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	15.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Kigelia africana	Bignoniaceae	[80]	Cameroon	Stem Barks	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	11.15 μg/mL IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	No
Kirkia wilmsii	Kirkiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Very Good	3.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Kniphofia foliosa	Xanthorrhoeaceae	[102]	Ethiopia	Roots	Dichloromethane	Very Good	3.8 µg/mL ED₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7	No
Landolphia lanceolata	Apocynaceae	[103]	Congo Brazzaville	Roots	Dichloromethane	Moderate	11 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcm29-Cameroon	Nd
Lannea edulis	Anacardiaceae	[20]	Kenya	Whole Plant	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	17 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Lantana camara	Verbenaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves, Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	11 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Leonotis mollissima	Lamiaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Leaves	Ethyl Acetate	Good	9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Leonotis africana	Lamiaceae	[33]	Gabon	Stems	Dichloromethane	Moderate	15.2–27.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcbm W2	Yes (SI = 6.07–6.82; human embryonic lung cells [MRC-5])
Leonotis leonurus	Lamiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves, Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	5.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Leonotis nepetifolia	Lamiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	15 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Leonotis ocymifolia	Lamiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	6.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Leptadenia madagascariensis	Apocynaceae	[91]	Comoros	Ns	Dichloromethane	Good	9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	No
Leucas calostachys	Lamiaceae	[95]	Kenya	Whole Plant	Water	Very Good	0.79 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium Knowlesi	Nd
Leucas martinicensis	Lamiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	13.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Lippia javanica	Verbenaceae	[24]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	5.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
		[104]	Kenya	Roots	Dichloromethane/Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	16.7—19.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K39, V1/S	Nd
		[22]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Very Good	3.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
		[25]	South Africa	Leaves	Acetone	Very Good	4.26 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum UP1 (CQ-R)	Nd
Lippia multiflora	Verbenaceae	[57]	Ivory Coast	Leaves	Water	Very Good	1.18—2.34 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1 & F32	Nd
Lophira lanceolata	Ochnaceae	[52]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Very Good	4.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Ludwigia erecta	Onagraceae	[24]	Kenya	Whole plant	Methanol	Very Good	0.9–1.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Macrostylis squarrosa	Rutaceae	[22]	South Africa	Stems	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	16 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Maesa lanceolata	Primulaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	5.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Markhamia lutea	Bignognaceae	[76]	Uganda	Leaves	Ethyl Acetate	Nd	Nd	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb6	Nd
Maytenus heterophylla	Celastraceae	[24]	Kenya	Root barks	Methanol	Very Good	1.8–3.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Maytenus obtusifolia	Celastraceae	[24]	Kenya	Root barks	Methanol	Good	< 1.9–5.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Maytenus putterlickioides	Celastraceae	[26]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	4.4–10.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Maytenus senegalensis	Celastraceae	[58]	Sudan	Stem barks	Methanol	Nd	3.9–10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, Dd9	Nd
		[26]	Kenya	Root barks	Methanol	Good	4.7–9.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
		[22]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Moderate	15.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
		[20]	Tanzania	Stem barks	Ethyl Acetate	Very Good	0.16 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
		[31]	Tanzania	Roots	Ethanol	Very Good	2.05 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Maytenus undata	Celastraceae	[26]	Kenya	Leaves	Water	Very Good	0.95–1.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Melia azedarach	Meliaceae	[46]	D.R. Congo	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Moderate	19.14 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, W2, Plasmodium berghei berghei	Nd
Microdesmis keayana	Pandaceae	[51]	Ivory Coast	Leaves	Methylene Chloride	Moderate	12.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Microglossa pyrifolia	Asteraceae	[24]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	10.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
		[77]	Uganda	Leaves	Ethyl Acetate	Very Good	0.03–0.05 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54 & FCR3	Nd
		[92]	Rwanda	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Very Good	1.5–2.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, W2	Yes (SI = 3.2; human normal foetal lungfibroblast [WI-38])
Mikania cordata	Compositae	[20]	Tanzania	Leaves	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	14 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Millettia zechiana	Fabaceae	[28]	Ivory Coast	Stem Barks	Ethanol	Moderate	16.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1/Colombia Strain	Nd
Millettia zechiana	Fabaceae	[43]	Ivory Coast	Stem Barks	Ethanol	Moderate	14.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCB1	Nd
Momordica balsamina	Cucurbitaceae	[22]	South Africa	Stems	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	5.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Momordica balsamina	Cucurbitaceae	[68]	Mozambique	Aerial Parts	Ns	Very Good^a	1 μM	Plasmodium berghei, Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Momordica charantia	Cucurbitaceae	[88]	Nigeria	Leaves	Methanol	Very Good	12.5 nM	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Momordica foetida	Cucurbitaceae	[77]	Uganda	Leaves	Water	Good	0.35–6.16 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54 & FCR3	Nd
Monodora myristica	Annonaceae	[33]	Gabon	Stem	Methanol	Good	5.5–6.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcbm W2	No
Monodora myristica	Annonaceae	[49]	Cameroon	Leaves	Methanol	Good	9.03 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Morinda lucida	Rubiaceae	[74]	S. Tome´ And Prı ´Ncipe	Barks	Ethanol	Good	< 10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 and Dd2	Nd
		[88]	Nigeria	Leaves	Methanol	Very Good	25 nM	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
		[53]	Nigeria	Roots	Dichloromethane	Moderate	13.37 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Morinda morindoides	Rubiaceae	[43]	Ivory Coast	Leaves	Ethanol	Good	9.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCB1	Nd
Morinda morindoides	Rubiaceae	[28]	Ivory Coast	Leaves	Ethanol	Moderate	11.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1/Colombia Strain	Nd
Moringa oleifera	Moringaceae	[26]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	9.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Motandra guineensis	Apocynaceae	[43]	Ivory Coast	Leaves	Ethanol	Moderate	16.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCB1	Nd
Mundulea sericea	Fabaceae	[86]	Namibia	Leaves, Shoots	Methanol	Very Good	3.279–3.352 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7	Nd
Mitragyna inermis	Rubiaceae	[93]	Mali	Leaves	Chloroform	Very Good	4.36–4.82 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2 & 3D7	No
Nauclea latifolia	Rubiaceae	[93]	Mali	Barks	Chloroform	Good	5.36–6.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2 & 3D7	Yes (IC₅₀ = 50 µg/ml; BALB/C mouse)
		[28]	Ivory Coast	Barks	Ethanol	Good	8.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1/Colombia Strain	No
		[106]	Ivory Coast	Roots, Stem	Water	Good	0.6–7.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1- Colombian And Nigerian Strains	Nd
		[43]	Ivory Coast	Root Barks	Ethanol	Good	7.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCB1	Nd
Nauclea pobeguinii	Rubiaceae	[107]	D.R.Congo	Stem Barks	Ethanol	In Active	32 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium yeolii, Plasmodium berghei	No
Neoboutonia glabrescens	Euphorbiaceae	[55]	Cameroon	Leaves	Ethanol, Water, Dichloromethane, Methanol, Hexane	Good	7.56 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Neorautanenia mitis	Fabaceae	[31]	Tanzania	Tubers	Ethanol	Very Good	1.58 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Newbouldia laevis	Bignognaceae	[108]	Togo	Leaves	Ethanol	Moderate	12.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
		[109]	Nigeria	Leaves	Water	Moderate	19.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
		[53]	Nigeria	Roots	Dichloromethane	Good	5.00 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Ocimum americana	Lamiaceae	[24]	Kenya	Whole Plant	Methanol	Moderate	8.9–12.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Ocimum americana	Lamiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Very Good	4.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Ocimum basilicum	Lamiaceae	[159]	D.R. Congo	Leaves	Ethanol, Methanol, Petroleum Ether, Chloroform	Good	< 0.35–18 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Ocimum basilicum	Lamiaceae	[26]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	16.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Ocimum gratissimum	Lamiaceae	[30]	Kenya	Leaves, Twigs	Dichloromethane	Good	8.616 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2, D6	Nd
		[40]	DR Congo	Leaves	Water	Good	7.25 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
		[26]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Good	5.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Ocimum kilimandscharicum	Lamiaceae	[30]	Kenya	Leaves, Twigs	Dichloromethane	Very Good	0.843–1.547 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2, D6	Nd
Olax gambecola	Olacaceae	[43]	Ivory Coast	Whole Plant	Ethanol	Good	5.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCB1	Nd
Olea europaea	Oleaceae	[24]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Moderate	17.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
		[21]	Kenya	Inner Barks	Methanol	Good	9.48 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6	No
		[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	12 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Opilia celtidifolia	Opiliaceae	[52]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Very Good	2.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Yes (SI = 0.4; HepG2 cells)
Ormocarpum trachycarpum	Fabaceae	[77]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Dichloromethane/Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	17.5—19.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K39, V1/S	Nd
Osteospermum imbricatum	Asteraceae	[22]	South Africa	Stems	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	7.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Phyllanthus amarus	Phyllanthaceae	[53]	Nigeria	Leaves	Petroleum Ether	Very Good	4.99 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Pachypodanthium confine	Annonaceae	[98]	Cameroon	Stem Barks	Water	Moderate^a	16.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W3	Nd
Pappea capensis Eckl.& Zeyh	Sapindaceae	[37]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane	Good	5.47 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54	Nd
Parinari curatellifolia	Chrysobalanaceae	[22]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Good	5.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
		[24]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	3.9–7.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
		[37]	South Africa	Stem Barks	Dichloromethane	Good	6.99 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54	Nd
Parinari excelsa	Chrysobalanaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Stem Barks	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Parinari excelsa	Chrysobalanaceae	[75]	Uganda	Barks	Ethyl Acetate	Nd	Nd	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb7	Nd
Parkinsonia aculeata	Fabaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Pavetta corymbosa	Rubiaceae	[65]	Benin	Aerial parts	Methanol	Moderate	5.54–20 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 & K1	Nd
		[110]	Togo	Aerial parts	Methanol	Very Good	2.042 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
		[110]	Togo	Aerial part	Methanol	Very Good	2.042 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Pavetta crassipes	Rubiaceae	[27]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Crude Alkaloid	Very Good	< 4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Pavetta crassipes	Rubiaceae	[71]	Togo	Aerial parts	Water	Good	< 7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Pelargonium alchemilloides	Geraniaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	15 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Pentas lanceolata	Rubiaceae	[21]	Kenya	Root barks	Methanol	Good	5.15 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6	No
Pentas longiflora	Rubiaceae	[26]	Kenya	Root barks	Methanol	Moderate	13.3 µg/ml IC50	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Pentzia globosa	Asteraceae	[22]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Good	8 µg/ml IC50	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Phyllanthus amarus	Phyllanthaceae	[111]	Ghana	Whole Plant	Ethanol	Moderate	11.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Dd2	No
Phyllanthus fraternus	Phyllanthaceae	[112]	Ghana	Whole plant	Methanol	Very Good	0.44 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, W2	No
Phyllanthus muellerianus	Phyllanthaceae	[28]	Ivory Coast	Leaves	Ethanol	Good	9.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1/Colombia Strain	No
Phyllanthus muellerianus	Phyllanthaceae	[43]	Ivory Coast	Leaves	Ethanol	Moderate	10.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCB1	Nd
Phyllanthus niruri	Phyllanthaceae	[69]	D.R.Congo	Whole Plant	Petroleum Ether	Very Good	1.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Phyllanthus urinaria	Phyllanthaceae	[45]	Cambodia	Whole Plant	Water	Very Good	2.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Physalis angulata	Solanaceae	[28]	Ivory Coast	Whole Plant	Ethanol	Good	7.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1/Colombia Strain	Nd
		[43]	Ivory Coast	Whole Plant	Ethanol	Good	7.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCB1	Nd
		[44]	D.R. Congo	Leaves	Methanolic and dichloromethane	Very good	1.27 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, W2, Plasmodium berghei berghei	No
Picralima nitida	Apocynaceae	[53]	Nigeria	Roots	Ethanol	Good	6.29 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
		[113]	Nigeria	Stems	Methanol	Good	6.0–6.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	No
		[89]	Cameroon	Seeds	Methanol	Moderate	10.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
		[114]	Ivory Coast	Root, Stem Barks Ans Fruit Rins	Ns	Very Good	0.188–1.581 μg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Piper capense	Piperaceae	[91]	Comoros	Ns	Dichloromethane	Good	7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	No
Piptadeniastrum africanum	Leguminosae	[40]	D.R. Congo	Stem Barks	Water	Good	6.11 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Yes (SI = 1.4–1.5; human embryonic lung cells [MRC-5])
Piptadeniastrum africanum	Leguminosae	[40]	D.R.Congo	Stem Barks	Water	Good	6.11 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Piptostigma calophyllum	Annonaceae	[49]	Cameroon	Leaves	Methanol	Good	6.72 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Pittosporum viridiflorum	Pittosporaceae	[24]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	17.6–18.9 µg/ml iC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Pittosporum viridiflorum	Pittosporaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane	Very Good	3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Plumbago zeylanica	Plumbaginaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Very Good	3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Podocarpus latifolius	Podocarpaceae	[21]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	6.43 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6	No
Pollichia campestris	Caryophyllaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	6.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Polyalthia longifolia	Annonaceae	[115]	Ghana	Stem Barks	Ethanol, N-Hexane,Dichloromethane, Ethyl Acetate, Methanol-Ethyl Acetate	Good^a	3–6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Polyalthia longifolia	Annonaceae	[116]	Ghana	Stem Barks	Methanol, Chloroform, Cyclohexane, Ethyl Acetate	Good^a	4.53–10.17 µM IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D8	Nd
Polyalthia oliveri	Annonaceae	[55]	Cameroon	Stem Barks	Ethanol, Water, Dichloromethane, Methanol, Hexane	Very Good	4.30 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Polyalthia oliveri	Annonaceae	[49]	Cameroon	Stem Barks	Methanol	Very Good	3.43 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Polyalthia suaveolens	Annonaceae	[49]	Cameroon	Twigs	Methanol	Very Good	3.23 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Polygonatum verticillatum	Asparagaceae	[117]	Kenya	Rhizome	N-Hexane, Chloroform	Very Good	2.33—4.62 μg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	No
Premna chrysoclada	Lamiaceae	[26]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	11.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Prosopis africana	Fabaceae	[50]	Nigeria	Ns	Methanol, Water, Butanol, Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	14.97–15.28 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, K1	Yes (SI ≥ 99; mouse heart-derived cells [NBMH])
Prunus africana	Rosaceae	[24]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Moderate	17.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Pseudospondias microcarpa	Anacardiaceae	[31]	Tanzania	Roots	Ethanol	Very Good	1.13 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Psiadia punctulata	Asteraceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane	Good	9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Psidium guajava	Myrtaceae	[40]	DR Congo	Leaves	Water	Good	5.46 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Psidium guajava	Myrtaceae	[20]	Tanzania	Leaves	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Psorospermum senegalense	Hypericaceae	[63]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Moderate	10.03 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 & W2	No
Ptaeroxylon obliquum	Rutaceae	[22]	South Africa	Stems	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	5.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Pterocarpus angolensis	Fabaceae	[22]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Moderate	10.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Pterocarpus erinaceus	Fabaceae	[118]	Burkina Faso	Leaves Ans Barks	Ethanol, Chloroform	Very Good	1.93 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 And Dd2	Nd
Pulicaria crispa	Asteraceae	[34]	Sudan	Whole Plant	Petroleum Ether/Chloroform	Very Good	< 5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Pycnanthus angolensis	Myristicaceae	[28]	Ivory Coast	Stem Barks	Ethanol	Moderate	18.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1/Colombia Strain	Nd
Pycnanthus angolensis	Myristicaceae	[74]	S. Tome´ And Prı ´Ncipe	Barks	Ethanol	Very Good	< 5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 And Dd2	Nd
Pyrenacantha grandiflora Baill	Icacinaceae	[37]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Good	5.82 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54	Nd
Quassia africana	Simaroubaceae	[103]	Congo Brazzaville	Leaves	Water, Ethanol, Dichloromethane	Very Good	0.1–2.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcm29-Cameroon	Yes (IC₅₀ = 6.7 µg/ml; KB cells)
Quassia africana	Simaroubaceae	[40]	D.R. Congo	Root Barks	Water	Very Good	0.46 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Ranunculus multifidus	Ranunculaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Very Good	2.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Rauvolfia caffra Sond	Apocynaceae	[37]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Very Good	2.13 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54	Nd
Rauvolfia nombasiana	Apocynaceae	[26]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	9.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Rauvolfia vomitoria	Apocynaceae	[53]	Nigeria	Roots	Dichloromethane	Very Good	4.78 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
		[28]	Ivory Coast	Barks	Ethanol	Very Good	2.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1/Colombia Strain	No
		[43]	Ivory Coast	Root Barks	Ethanol	Very Good	2.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCB1	Nd
Rhamnus prinoides	Rhamnaceae	[77]	Kenya	Roots	Methanol	Moderate	15.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K39 (CQ-S), ENT30, NF54, V1/S	Nd
Rhamnus prinoides	Rhamnaceae	[21]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Very Good	3.53 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6	No
Rhizophora mucronata	Rhizophoraceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	5.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Ricinus communis var. communis	Euphorbiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Stems	Water	Good	8.0 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Rubia cordifolia	Rubiaceae	[95]	Kenya	Leaves/Seeds/Stems	Methanol	Very Good	1.20 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium Knowlesi	Nd
Rubia cordifolia	Rubiaceae	[24]	Kenya	Whole Plant	Methanol	Very Good	< 5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Rumex abyssinicus	Polygonaceae	[92]	Rwanda	Roots	Water	Very Good	3.1–4.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, W2	Yes (SI = 3.1; human normal foetal lung fibroblast [WI-38])
Rumex crispus	Polygonaceae	[22]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Moderate	14 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Salacia madagascariensis	Celastraceae	[20]	Tanzania	Roots	Petroleum Ether	Very Good	0.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Salvia africana-lutea	Lamiaceae	[120]	South Africa	Aerial Parts	Methanol/Chloroform	Moderate	15.863 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCR-3	Nd
Salvia albicaulis	Lamiaceae	[120]	South Africa	Aerial Parts	Methanol/Chloroform	Moderate	15.833 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCR-3	Nd
Salvia aurita	Lamiaceae	[120]	South Africa	Aerial Parts	Methanol/Chloroform	Good	8.923 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCR-3	Nd
Salvia chamelaeagnea	Lamiaceae	[120]	South Africa	Aerial Parts	Methanol/Chloroform	Good	8.713 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCR-3	Nd
Salvia dolomitica	Lamiaceae	[120]	South Africa	Aerial Parts	Methanol/Chloroform	Good	7.623 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCR-3	Nd
Salvia garipensis	Lamiaceae	[120]	South Africa	Aerial Parts	Methanol/Chloroform	Moderate	13.953 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCR-3	Nd
Salvia muirii	Lamiaceae	[120]	South Africa	Aerial Parts	Methanol/Chloroform	Moderate	11.873 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCR-3	Nd
Salvia radula	Lamiaceae	[120]	South Africa	Aerial Parts	Methanol/Chloroform	Very Good	3.913 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCR-3	Yes (IC₅₀ = 20.12 µg/ml; Kidney cells)
Salvia repens	Lamiaceae	[120]	South Africa	Aerial Parts	Methanol/Chloroform	Good	8.253 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCR-3	Nd
Salvia repens	Lamiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	10.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Salvia runcinata	Lamiaceae	[120]	South Africa	Aerial Parts	Methanol/Chloroform	Moderate	16.613 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCR-3	Nd
Salvia schlechteri	Lamiaceae	[120]	South Africa	Aerial Parts	Methanol/Chloroform	Moderate	17.513 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCR-3	Nd
Salvia stenophylla	Lamiaceae	[120]	South Africa	Aerial Parts	Methanol/Chloroform	Good	6.53 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCR-3	Yes (IC₅₀ = 12.12 µg/ml; Kidney cells)
Sonchus schweinfurthi	Compositae	[95]	Kenya	Barks/Roots	Methanol	Very Good	2.10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium Knowlesi	Nd
Scaevola plumieri	Goodeniaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane	Moderate	11 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Schefflera umbellifera	Araliaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Very Good	3.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Schizozygia coffaeoides	Apocynaceae	[26]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	10.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Schkuhria pinnata	Compositae	[24]	Kenya	Whole Plant	Methanol	Good	1.3–6.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparumD6, W2	Nd
Schrankia leptocarpa	Fabaceae	[65]	Benin	Aerial Parts	Methanol	Moderate	3.38- > 20 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 & K1	Nd
Sclerocarya birrea	Anacardiaceae	[24]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Moderate	5.9–24.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Secamone afzelii	Apocynaceae	[65]	Benin	Aerial Parts	Methanol	Moderate	6.48- > 20 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 & K1	Nd
Securidaca longipedunculata	Polygalaceae	[121]	Mali	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Good	6.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7	Nd
Securinega virosa	Phyllanthaceae	[52]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Good	7.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Senecio oxyriifolius	Asteraceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	13 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Senecio stuhlmannii	Asteraceae	[56]	Uganda	Shoots	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	14.0–15.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10, K1	Nd
Senna didymobotrya	Fabaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	9.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Senna petersiana	Fabaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	13 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Senna petersiana	Fabaceae	[59]	Malawi	Leaves	Methanol	Very Good	2·67 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Vl/S	Nd
Sericocomopsis hildebrandtii	Amaranthaceae	[21]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Very Good	3.78 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6	No
Setaria megaphylla	Poaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Very Good	4.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Sida acuta	Malvaceae	[118]	Burkina Faso	Whole Plant	Ethanol, Chloroform, Water	Very Good	0.87–0.92 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 And Dd2	Nd
Sida acuta	Malvaceae	[38]	Ivory Coast	Ns	Ethanol	Good	3.9–5.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	No
Solanum panduriforme	Solanaceae	[25]	South Africa	Leaves	Acetone	Very Good	3.62 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum UP1 (CQ-R)	Nd
Solanecio mannii	Asteraceae	[92]	Rwanda	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Moderate	12.7–18.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, W2	No
Spilanthes mauritiana	Asteraceae	[22]	South Africa	Stems	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	5.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Staudtia gabonensis	Myristicaceae	[33]	Gabon	Stems	Methanol	Very Good	0.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcbm W2	No
Stephania abyssinica	Menispermaceae	[24]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	4.7–6.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Stephania rotunda	Menispermaceae	[45]	Cambodia	Tubers	Dichloromethane	Very Good	1.0 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Struchium sparganophorum	Asteraceae	[73]	S. Tome´ And Prı ´Ncipe	Leaves	Petroleum Ether	Good	< 10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 And Dd2	Nd
Strychnopsis thouarsii	Menispermaceae	[122]	Madagascar	Stem Barks	Methanol	Very Good^a	3.1—4.2 µM	Plasmodium falciparum NF54, Plasmodium yoelli 265 BY	No
Strychnos henningsii	Loganiaceae	[72]	Kenya	Twigs	Methanol	Moderate	14.6–17.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1, NF54	Nd
Strychnos pungens	Loganiaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Moderate	12.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Strychnos spinosa	Loganiaceae	[123]	Senegal	Leaves, Stem	Methanol, Water	Moderate	15 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodiumfalciparum	Nd
Strychnos icaja	Loganiaceae	[46]	D.R. congo	Root barks	Methanolic and dichloromethane	Very good	0.69 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, W2, Plasmodium berghei berghei	Nd
Suregada zanzibariensis	Euphorbiaceae	[26]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Good	5.8–6.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
		[124]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Very Good	1.82–4.66 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6&W2	Nd
		[124]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Very Good	1.82–4.66 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	No
Syzygium cordatum subsp. cordatum	Myrtaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	14.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Syzygium cordatum subsp. cordatum		[37]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Good	6.15 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54	Nd
Tabernaemontana elegans	Apocynaceae	[37]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Very Good	0.33 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54	Nd
Tabernaemontana pachysiphon	Apocynaceae	[26]	Kenya	Flower	Methanol	Very Good	4.4–4.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Tagetes minuta	Asteraceae	[75]	Uganda	Leaves	Ethyl Acetate	Nd	Nd	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb8	Nd
Tamarindus indica	Fabaceae	[23]	Sudan	Stem Barks	Methanol	Moderate	10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, Dd2	No
Tamarindus indica	Fabaceae	[110]	Togo	Fruits	Water	Very Good	4.786 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Tapinanthus dodoneifolius	Loranthaceae	[52]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Methanol	Good	5.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Tarchonanthus camphoratus	Asteraceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Teclea nobilis	Rutaceae	[24]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Moderate	3.9–20.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Teclea nobilis	Rutaceae	[75]	Uganda	Barks	Ethyl Acetate	Nd	Nd	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb9	Nd
Tecoma capensis	Bignoniaceae	[22]	South Africa	Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	10.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Tectona grandis	Lamiaceae	[112]	Ghana	Leaves	Methanol	Very Good	0.92 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, W2	No
Terminalia avicennioides	Combretaceae	[50]	Nigeria	Ns	Methanol, Water, Butanol, Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	12.28–14.09 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, K1	Yes (SI ≥ 114; mouse heart-derived cells [NBMH])
Terminalia avicennioides	Combretaceae	[52]	Burkina Faso	Leaves	Methanol	Very Good	1.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Terminalia glaucescens	Combretaceae	[39]	Ivory Coast	Stem, Leave	Water, Ethanol, Pentane	Very Good	2.34–4.83 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcm29, Fcb1, CQ-S (Nigerian)	No
Terminalia ivorensis	Combretaceae	[32]	Ghana	Stem Barks	Ethanol	Good	6.949 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7	Nd
Terminalia ivorensis	Combretaceae	[112]	Ghana	Leaves	Methanol	Good	5.70 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, W2	No
Terminalia macroptera	Combretaceae	[27]	Burkina Faso	Root Barks	Water	Very Good	1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Terminalia mollis	Combretaceae	[92]	Rwanda	Root Barks	Methanol	Moderate	11.7–26.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, W2	No
Terminalia spinosa	Combretaceae	[26]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Good	7.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Tetracera poggei Gilg	Dilleniaceae	[69]	DR Congo	Leaves	Petroleum Ether	Very Good	1.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Tetrapleura tetraptera	Fabaceae	[33]	Gabon	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Moderate	10.1–13.0 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCB, 3D7	No
Thalia geniculata	Marantaceae	[65]	Benin	Roots	Methanol	Moderate	2.83- > 20 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 & K1	Nd
Tinospora bakis	Menispermaceae	[34]	Sudan	Whole Plant	Petroleum Ether/Chloroform	Very Good	< 5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Tithonia diversifolia	Asteraceae	[73]	S. Tome´ And Prı ´Ncipe	Aerial Parts	Petroleum Ether, Dichloromethane	Good	< 10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 And Dd2	Nd
Tithonia diversifolia	Asteraceae	[92]	Rwanda	Flowers	Dichloromethane	Very Good	1.0–1.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, W2	No
Toddalia asiatica	Rutaceae	[26]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	6.82–13.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Toddalia asiatica	Rutaceae	[125]	Kenya	Root Barks	Dichloromethane + Methanol	Very Good^a	9 – 100 ng/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Trichilia emetica	Meliaceae	[121]	Mali	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Moderate	11.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7	Nd
		[58]	Sudan	Leaves	Methanol	Good	2.5–17.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, Dd6	Nd
		[24]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Moderate	13.3 µg/ml C₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
		[25]	South Africa	Stem Barks	Acetone	Very Good	3.29 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum UP1 (CQ-R)	Nd
		[22]	South Africa	Leaves, Twigs	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Very Good	3.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Triclisia dictyophylla	Menispermaceae	[40]	D.R. Congo	Leaves	Water	Good	5.13 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	No
Tridax procumbens	Asteraceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	17 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Tridax procumbens	Asteraceae	[26]	Kenya	Whole Plant	Methanol	Moderate	15.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Triumfetta welwitschii var. hirsuta	Malvaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Very Good	3.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Turraea floribunda	Meliaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	8.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Turraea floribunda	Meliaceae	[26]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Good	5.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Turraea robusta	Meliaceae	[72]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Very Good	2.4–3.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1, NF54	Nd
Turraea robusta	Meliaceae	[24]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Good	2.1–10.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Tylosema fassoglensis	Fabaceae	[30]	Kenya	Tubers	Dichloromethane	Very Good	0.77–0.896 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2, D6	Nd
Uapaca paludosa	Phyllanthaceae	[103]	Congo Brazzaville	Barks	Dichloromethane	Good	8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcm29-Cameroon	Nd
Uvaria acuminata	Annonaceae	[26]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	6.9–8.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Uvaria scheffleri	Annonaceae	[26]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Good	6.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Uvaria afzelii	Annonaceae	[48]	Ivory Coast	Roots	Pentane	Moderate	9–22 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCM29, CQ-S (Nigerian)	No
Uvariastrum zenkeri	Annonaceae	[49]	Cameroon	Twigs	Ethanol	Very Good	1.89 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Uvariodendron molundense	Annonaceae	[49]	Cameroon	Twigs	Methanol	Very Good	4.79 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Uvariopsis congolana	Annonaceae	[55]	Cameroon	Stems	Ethanol, Water, Dichloromethane, Methanol, Hexane	Very Good	4.47 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Vangueria infausta Burch. subsp. Infausta	Rubiaceae	[37]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Very Good	1.84 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54	Nd
Vepris lanceolata	Rutaceae	[20]	Kenya	Root Barks	Ethyl Acetate	Good	7.0 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
Vernonia amygdalina	Asteraceae	[74]	S. Tome´ And Prı ´Ncipe	Leaves	Ethyl Acetate	Moderate	10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 And Dd2	Nd
		[80]	Cameroon	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Moderate	8.72–11.27 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, DD2	No
		[126]	Nigeria	Leaves	Ethanol	Good	9.83 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, NF-54	Yes (SI = 6.14; C-1008 kidney fibroblast
		[26]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Good	4.9–7.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
		[127]	Nigeria	Leaves	Ethanol	Moderate	11.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Yes (LD₅₀ = 1950 mg/kg; rat)
		[69]	D.R. Congo	Leaves	Petroleum Ether	Very Good	2.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	Nd
Vernonia brachycalyx	Asteraceae	[104]	Kenya	Leaves	Dichloromethane/Ethyl Acetate	Good	6.6—8.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K39, V1/S	Nd
Vernonia cinerea	Asteraceae	[45]	Cambodia	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane	Moderate	18.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Vernonia colorata	Asteraceae	[57]	Ivory Coast	Stems, Leaves	Water	Good	2.35–9.38 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1 & F32	Nd
		[54]	Zimbabwe	Leaves	Petrolether/Ethylacetate	Moderate	12.1–17.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Pow, Dd2	Nd
		[91]	Comoros	Roots	Dichloromethane	Very Good	3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	No
		[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Very Good	4.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Vernonia fastigiata	Asteraceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Moderate	10 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Vernonia guineensis	Asteraceae	[128]	Cameroon	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Very Good	1.635—1.823 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum	No
Vernonia lasiopus	Compositae	[12]	Kenya	Leaves	Chloroform, Ethylacetate, Methanol	Very Good	1.0–3.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K39 (CQ-S), ENT30, NF54, V1/S	Nd
Vernonia lasiopus	Compositae	[73]	Kenya	Root Barks	Dichloromethane	Very Good	4.7–4.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1, NF54	Nd
Vernonia myriantha	Asteraceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Very Good	3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Vernonia oligocephala	Asteraceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Very Good	3.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Vismia guineensis	Hypericaceae	[48]	Ivory Coast	Leaves	Pentane	Moderate	15–20 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCM29, CQ-S (Nigerian)	Nd
Warburgia ugandensis	Canellaceae	[72]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Dichloromethane	Very Good	1.4–2.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1, NF54	Nd
Warburgia ugandensis	Canellaceae	[24]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	4.1–6.1 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Warburgia stuhlmannii	Canellaceae	[26]	Kenya	Stem Barks	Methanol	Very Good	1.8–2.3 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Ximenia americana	Olacaceae	[57]	Ivory Coast	Stem, Leave	Water	Very Good	0.6–2.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum Fcb1 & F32	Nd
Xylopia aethiopica	Annonaceae	[98]	Cameroon	Stem Barks	Water	Moderate^a	17.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W5	Nd
Xylopia aethiopica	Annonaceae	[49]	Cameroon	Leaves	Methanol	Very Good	3.75 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Xylopia africana	Annonaceae	[49]	Cameroon	Stem Barks	Methanol	Very Good	1.07 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Xylopia parviflora (A.Rich.)Benth.Oliv	Annonaceae	[37]	South Africa	Roots	Dichloromethane	Very Good	2.19 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54	Nd
Xylopia parviflora (A.Rich.)Benth.Oliv	Annonaceae	[49]	Cameroon	Leaves	Methanol	Very Good	3.44 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Xylopia phloiodora	Annonaceae	[98]	Cameroon	Stem Barks	Water	Moderate^a	17.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd
Xysmalobium undulatum	Apocynaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Zanthoxylum chalybeum	Rutaceae	[137]	Kenya	Root Barks	Water	Good	2.32–5.52 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54, ENT30	Nd
		[77]	Uganda	Stem Barks	Ethyl Acetate	Very Good	0.57–3.21 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54 & FCR3	Nd
		[92]	Rwanda	Root Barks	Methanol	Very Good	1.9–4.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, W2	No
		[20]	Tanzania	Root Barks	Ethyl Acetate	Very Good	4.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1	Nd
		[26]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Very Good	2.9–3.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Zanthoxylum gilletii	Rutaceae	[43]	Ivory Coast	Stem Barks	Ethanol	Very Good	2.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCB1	Nd
Zanthoxylum heitzii	Rutaceae	[129]	Republic Of Congo	Barkss	Hexane	Very Good^a	0.0089 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium berghei	Nd
Zanthoxylum tsihanimposa	Rutaceae	[130]	Madagascar	Stem Barks	Dichloromethane + Methanol	Very Good^a	98.4 µM IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FCM29	Nd
Zanthoxylum usambarense	Rutaceae	[24]	Kenya	Root Barks	Methanol	Good	3.2–5.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Zea mays	Poaceae	[131]	Nigeria	Leaves	Ethanol, ethyl acetate	Good	3.69—9.31 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, INDO, Plasmodium berghei	Nd
Zehreria scabra	Cucurbitaceae	[22]	South Africa	Whole Plant	Dichloromethane/Methanol	Good	5.6 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Zehreria scabra	Cucurbitaceae	[26]	Kenya	Whole Plant	Methanol	Good	9.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Ziziphus abyssica	Rhamnaceae	[24]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	17.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2	Nd
Ziziphus mucronata	Rhamnaceae	[22]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Moderate	12 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10	Nd
Ziziphus mucronata	Rhamnaceae	[25]	South Africa	Stem Barks	Acetone	Very Good	4.13 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum UP1 (CQ-R)	Nd
Ziziphus cambodiana	Rhamnaceae	[45]	Cambodia	Stems	Dichloromethane	Moderate	19.0 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2	Nd

Nd Not done, Ns Not specified, SI Selectivity index

^aActivity determined using pure compounds isolated from plant

Table 2

In vivo antimalarial activity of African medicinal plants

Plant species	Plant family	Source	Country of study	Part of plant used	Extraction solvent	Antimalarial activity	Parasite suppression rate	Strain of Plasmodium tested	Toxicity (value; assay)
Acacia nilotica	Fabaceae	[132]	Nigeria	Roots	Water	Moderate	79.5% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei NK65	No
Acacia nilotica	Fabaceae	[133]	Nigeria	Roots	Methanol	Very good	62.59% at 150 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei NK65	No
Adansonia digitata	Malvaceae	[134]	Nigeria	Stem barks	Methanol	Moderate^a	90.18% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	Nd
		[135]	Kenya	Stem barks	Ethanol	Very good	> 60% at 100 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	No
		[135]	Kenya	Stem barks	Water	Very good	60.47% at 100 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	No
Ageratum conyzoides	Asteraceae	[136]	Nigeria	Leaves	Water	Moderate	89.87% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei NK65	Nd
Albizia gummifera	Fabaceae	[137]	Kenya	Root barks	Methanol	Very good^a	72.9% at 20 mg/kg.day	Plasmodium falciparum NF54 and ENT36	Nd
Allophylus africanus	Sapindaceae	[138]	Nigeria	Stems, roots	Ns	Very good	92.82–97.81 at 50 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei NK-65	Nd
Aloe pulcherrima	Xanthorrhoeaceae	[139]	Ethiopia	Leaves	Methanol	Good^a	56.2 at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	No
Anthocleista djalonensis	Gentianaceae	[140]	Nigeria	Roots	Chloroform, ethyl acetate, methanol	Moderate	64.81–87.66% at 500 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium beghei ANKA	No
Anthocleista djalonensis	Gentianaceae	[140]	Nigeria	Roots	Ethanol, chloroform, ethyl acetate, methanol	Moderate	67.92% at 500 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei ANKA	No
Artemisia macivarae	Asteraceae	[141]	Nigeria	Whole plant	Chloroform	Very good	80% at 100 mg/kg	Plasmodium berghei	Nd
Aspilia africana	Asteraceae	[142]	Nigeria	Leaves	Ethanol	Moderate	92.23% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berhhei NK65	No
Azadirachta indica	Meliaceae	[143]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Good	83.48% at 250 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2	No
		[144]	Cameroon	Leaves	Ethanol	Moderate	69.28% at 300 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei NK65	No
		[145]	Nigeria	Leaves	Methanol	Very good	56 – 87% at 50 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei ANKA	No
Balanites rotundifolia	Zygophyllaceae	[146]	Ethiopia	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	67% at 400 mg/dl	Plasmodium berghei	No
Blighia sapida	Sapindaceae	[147]	Nigeria	Leaves	Ethanol	Good	57% at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei ANKA	No
Bombax buonopozense	Malvaceae	[148]	Nigeria	Root barks	Water	Good	93% at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei NK65	Nd
Brassica nigra	Brassicaceae	[149]	Ethiopia	Seeds	Methanol	Moderate	53.13% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei ANKA	Nd
Calpurnia aurea	Fabaceae	[150]	Ethiopia	Leaves	Hydroalcohol	Very good	51.15% at 60 mg/kg	Plasmodium berghei	No
Carica papaya	Caricaceae	[151]	Nigeria	Leaves	Ethanol	Good	59.29% at 200 mg/kg	Plasmodim berghei NK65	Nd
Senna occidentalis	Fabaceae	[152]	D.R. Congo	Root barks	Ethanol	Good	68% at 200 mg/kg	Plasmodium berghei ANKA	No
Cassia sieberiana	Fabaceae	[153]	Nigeria	Stems	Ethanol	Good	63.9% at 300 g/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei NK65	No
Cassia singueana	Fabaceae	[154]	Nigeria	Root barks	Methanol	Good	79.06% at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	Yes (LD₅₀ = 847 mg/kg; mice)
Chrozophora senegalensis	Euphorbiaceae	[155]	Nigeria	Whole plant	Methanol	Very good	51.8% at 75 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	Nd
Chrysophyllum albidum	Sapotaceae	[156]	Nigeria	Seeds, pulp juice	Ethanol	Moderate	72.97% at 500 mg/kg	Plasmodium berghei	No
Clausena anisota	Rutaceae	[157]	Nigeria	Leaves	Ethanol	Very good	82.02% at 78 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	Yes (LD₅₀ = 393.7 mg/kg; albino mice)
Combretum molle	Combretaceae	[158]	Ethiopia	Seeds	Methanol	Good	63.5% at 250 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei ANKA	Nd
Commiphora africana	Burseraceae	[159]	Tanzania	Stem barks	Dichloromethane	Moderate	64.24% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium falciparum (D6, Dd2), Plasmodium berghei	No
Crossopteryx febrifuga	Rubiaceae	[160]	Nigeria	Stem barks	Ethanol	Good	63.65% at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei var. ANKA	Nd
Croton macrostachyus	Euphorbiaceae	[161]	Kenya	Stem barks	Ethyl acetate	Moderate	82% at 500 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei ANKA	Nd
Cryptolepis sanguinolenta	Apocynaceae	[162]	Congo	Root barks	Ethanol	Moderate	75.07% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium berghei berghei	Nd
Cryptolepis sanguinolenta	Apocynaceae	[84]	Ghana	Roots	Hexane, ethanol, dichloromethane	Very good*	> 80% at 2.5 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium vinckei petteri, Plasmodium berghei ANKA	Nd
Cucumis metuliferus	Cucurbitaceae	[163]	Tanzania	Leaves	Chloroform	Moderate	70.69% at 600 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei ANKA	Nd
Dichrostachys cinerea	Fabaceae	[159]	Tanzania	Stem barks	Methanol	Moderate	53.12% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium falciparum (D6, Dd2), Plasmodium berghei	No
Dodonaea angustifolia	Sapindaceae	[164]	Ethiopia	Roots	N-butanol	Moderate	55.8% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	Nd
Enantia chlorantha Oliv	Annonaceae	[165]	Nigeria	Stem barks	Ethanol	Moderate	75.23% at 500 mg/kg	Plasmodium berghei NK-65	Nd
Erigeron floribundus	Asteraceae	[144]	Cameroon	Whole plant	Ethanol	Good	62.4% at 240 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei NK65	No
Euphorbia cordifolia	Euphorbiaceae	[166]	Cameroon	Whole plant	Aqueous	Very good	94.70% at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	No
Euphorbia hirta L	Euphorbiaceae	[162]	Congo	Whole plant	Ethanol	Moderate	69.44% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium berghei berghei	Nd
Faidherbia albida	Fabaceae	[167]	Nigeria	Stem barks	Ethanol	Moderate	89.5 at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei NK65	Nd
Grewia plagiophylla	Malvaceae	[143]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	77.9 at 250 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2	Nd
Grewia trichocarpa	Malvaceae	[168]	Kenya	Root	Water	Good	35.8% at 10 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	Yes (LD₅₀ = 545.8 µg/ml; brine shrimp)
Garcinia kola	Clusiaceae	[169]	Nigeria	Seeds	Petroleum ether	Very good*	93% at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	Nd
Hippocratea africana	Celastraceae	[170]	Nigeria	Nd	Ethanol	Moderate	90.9% at 600 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei berghei	Yes (LD₅₀ = 2449 mg/kg; mice)
Hoslundia opposita	Lamiaceae	[143]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	79.67% at 250 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2	Yes (CC₅₀ = 37 µg/ml; Vero E6 cells)
Icacina senegalensis	Icacinaceae	[171]	Nigeria	Leaves	Methanol	Very good	80% at 100 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	Yes (LD₅₀ > 2000 mg/kg; mice)
Indigofera spicata	Fabaceae	[172]	Ethiopia	Roots	Methanol	Moderate	53.42% at 600 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei ANKA	Nd
Lannea schweinfurthii	Anacardiaceae	[143]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	83.48% at 250 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2	Yes (CC₅₀ = 76 µg/ml; Vero E6 cells)
Lippia kituiensis	Verbenaceae	[163]	Tanzania	Leaves	Ethyl acetate	Moderate	70.14% at 600 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei ANKA	Nd
Lophira lanceolata	Ochnaceae	[173]	Nigeria	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	80% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	No
Maerua crassifolia	Capparaceae	[174]	Nigeria	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	86% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei NK65	No
Maytenus senegalensis	Celastraceae	[175]	Tanzania	Root barks	Ethanol	Very good	98.1% at 100 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	No
Morinda morindoides	Rubiaceae	[152]	D.R. Congo	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Good	74% at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei ANKA	No
Mucuna pruriens	Fabaceae	[176]	Nigeria	Leaves	Water	Good	71.75% at 270 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei NK65	No
Nauclea latifolia	Rubiaceae	[177]	Nigeria	Leaves	Ethanol	Moderate	60.63% at 500 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	No
Nauclea latifolia	Rubiaceae	[165]	Nigeria	Roots	Ethanol	Moderate	71.15% at 500 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei NK-65	Nd
Oldenlandia affinis	Rubiaceae	[178]	Nigeria	Aerial parts	Methanol, water, dichloromethane	Moderate	75% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	No
Peschiera fuchsiaefolia	Apocynaceae	[179]	Madagascar	Stem barks	Ns	Good*	43.4% at 10 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium yoelii N67, Plasmodium falciparum FMC29	Nd
Phyllanthus amarus	Phyllanthaceae	[180]	Nigeria	Whole plant	Water and ethanol	Good	79% at 1600 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium yoelii	Nd
Phyllanthus niruri	Phyllanthaceae	[152]	D.R. Congo	Whole plant	Ethanol	Good	73% at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei ANKA	No
Phyllanthus niruri	Phyllanthaceae	[181]	Nigeria	Aerial parts	Methanol/chloroform	Very good	90.48% at 100 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei berghei NK 65	Nd
Phytolacca dodecandra	Phytolaccaceae	[182]	Ethiopia	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	55.24% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	Nd
Picralima nitida	Apocynaceae	[183]	Nigeria	Seeds	Ethanol	Good	73% at 115 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei berghei	Yes (LD₅₀ = 87.29 µg/ml; albino mice)
Piliostigma thonningii	Fabaceae	[184]	Nigeria	Leaves	Ethanol	Moderate	91% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei NK65	No
Premna chrysoclada	Lamiaceae	[143]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Good	65.08% at 250 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2	Nd
Pseudocedrela kotschyi	Meliaceae	[185]	Nigeria	Leaves	Ethanol	Moderate	90% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei (NK65	No,
Rhus natalensis	Anacardiaceae	[143]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	82.7% at 250 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2	Nd
Salacia nitida	Celastraceae	[165]	Nigeria	Roots	Ethanol	Moderate	71.15% at 250 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei NK-65	Nd
Stachytarpheta cayennensis	Verbenaceae	[186]	Nigeria	Leaves	Ethanol	Good	78.2% at 270 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei berghei	Yes (LD₅₀ = 938.08 mg/kg; albino mice)
Telfairia occidentalis	Cucurbitaceae	[187]	Nigeria	Leaves	Water	Good	72.17% at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei ANKA	No
Tithonia diversifolia	Asteraceae	[160]	Nigeria	Aerial parts	Ethanol	Good	74.97% at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei var. ANKA I	Nd
Toddalia asiatica	Rutaceae	[188]	Kenya	Root barks	Methanol	Moderate	59.3% at 500 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei NK66	Nd
Trema orientalis	Cannabaceae	[189]	Nigeria	Stem barks	Methanol	Good	70% at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	Nd
Trichilia megalantha	Meliaceae	[190]	Nigeria	Stem barks	Methanol, chloroform	Good	89.1–100% at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei berghei ANKA	Nd
Triphyophyllum peltatum	Dioncophyllaceae	[191]	Ivory Coast	Roots, stem barks	Dichloromethane	Very good*	99% at 50 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei ANKA CRS	Nd
Uvaria acuminata	Annonaceae	[143]	Kenya	Roots	Methanol	Good	27.0% at 250 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2	Nd
Uvaria chamae P. Beauv	Annonaceae	[170]	Nigeria	Nd	Ethanol	Moderate	72.2% at 600 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei berghei	Yes (LD₅₀ = 3464 mg/kg; mice)
Verbena hastata	Verbenaceae	[192]	Nigeria	Leaves	Ethanol	Moderate	70% at 400 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	No
Vernonia amygdalina	Asteraceae	[193]	Uganda	Leaves	Water	Good	73% at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	No
		[194]	Nigeria	Leaves	Water	Good	50.78—62.66% at 125 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei ANKA	Nd
		[195]	Botswana	Leaves and root barks	Ethanol	Moderate	67% at 500 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	Nd
Vernonia lasiopus	Asteraceae	[188]	Kenya	Root barks	Methanol	Moderate	59.3% at 500 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei NK67	Nd
Withania somnifera	Solanaceae	[196]	Ethiopia	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	57% at 300 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei ANKA	Nd
Xylopia aethiopica	Annonaceae	[141]	Nigeria	Fruits	Chloroform	Very good	60% at 100 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	Nd
Artemisia abyssinica	Asteraceae	[197]	Ethiopia	Aerial parts	Hydroalcohol	Good	64.7% at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	Nd
Rotheca myricoides	Lamiaceae	[198]	Ethiopia	Leaves	Methanol	Good	54.14% at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	No
Dodonaea angustifolia	Sapindaceae	[198]	Ethiopia	Roots	Methanol	Good	57.74% at 200 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium berghei	No
Clutia abyssinica	Peraceae	[199]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	40.45% at 100 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium berghei ANKA	No
Pittosporum viridiflorum	Pittosporaceae	[199]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	54.77% at 100 mg/kg/day	Plasmodium falciparum D6 &W2, Plasmodium berghei ANKA	Yes (SI = 2.51; Vero E6 cells)

Nd Not done, Ns Not specified, SI Selectivity index

^aActivity determined using pure compounds isolated from plant

Table 3

In vitro and in vivo studies on African medicinal plants

Plant species	Plant family	Source	Country of study	Part of plant used	Extraction solvent	Overall activity	In vitro	In vivo	IC₅₀ or ED₅₀ or LD₅₀	Strain of Plasmodium tested	parasite suppression rate	Toxicity (value; assay)
Sphaeranthus suaveolens	Compositae	[199]	Kenya	Whole plant	Methanol	Moderate	Moderate	In active	7.93–56.73 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2, Plasmodium berghei ANKA	46.74% at 100 mg/kg/day	No
Abutilon grandiflorum	Malvaceae	[200]	Tanzania	Roots	Ethyl acetate	Good	Moderate	Very good	9–14 µg/mL IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum HB3 and FCB, Plasmodium vinckei vinckei	83–87% at 20 ug/ml/day	Yes (IC₅₀ = 36 µg/ml; human colon carcinoma cell line [HT29])
Alchornea laxiflora	Euphorbiaceae	[131]	Nigeria	Roots	Ethyl acetate, dichloromethane	Good	Inactive	Very good	38.44—40.17 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum 3Dè, INDO, Plasmodium berghei	65.73% at 150 mg/kg/day	Yes (LD₅₀ = 748.33 mg/kg; HeLa cells)
Annona senegalensis	Annonaceae	[201]	Nigeria	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	In active	Very good	28.8 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium berghei	> 57% at 100 mg/kg/day	No
Boscia angustifolia	Capparaceae	[199]	Kenya	Stem barks	Methanol	Moderate	Moderate	Very good	7.43–35.93 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 &W2, Plasmodium berghei ANKA	60.12% at 100 mg/kg/day	No
Chrozophora senegalensis	Euphorbiaceae	[64]	Senegal	Leaves	Water	Very good	Very good	Very good	1.6–1.9 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum FcM29, FcB1, Plasmodium vinckei petteri	65% at 10 mg/kg/day	No
Clerodendrum eriophyllum	Lamiaceae	[199]	Kenya	Root barks	Methanol	Moderate	Good	Very good	9.51–10.56 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 & W2, Plasmodium berghei ANKA	90.13% at 100 mg/kg/day	No
Cocos nucifera	Arecaceae	[202]	Nigeria	Husk	Ethyl acetate	Moderate	Moderate	Very good	10.94 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2, Plasmodium berghei NK65	98.6% at 125 mg/kg/day	Nd
Commiphora africana	Burseraceae	[159]	Tanzania	Stem barks	Dichloromethane	Moderate	Very good	Moderate	4.54 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, Dd2, Plasmodium berghei	64.24% at 400 mg/kg/day	No
Ficus thonningii	Moraceae	[203]	Nigeria	Whole plant	Hexane	Moderate	Good	Moderate	2.7–10.4 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54, K1, Plasmodium berghei NK65	84.5% at 500 mg/kg/day	No
Flueggea virosa	Phyllanthaceae	[199]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Very good	Very good	Very good	2.28–3.64 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2, Plasmodium berghei ANKA	70.91% at 100 mg/kg/day	No
Fuerstia africana	Lamiaceae	[199]	Kenya	Whole plant	Methanol	Very good	Very good	Very good	0.98–2.40 µg//ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2, Plasmodium berghei ANKA	61.85% at 100 mg/kg/day	No
Harungana madagascariensis	Hypericaceae	[199]	Kenya	Leaves	Water	Moderate	Inactive	Very good	39.07–43.7 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2, Plasmodium berghei ANKA	88.04% at 100 mg/kg/day	No
Harungana madagascariensis	Hypericaceae	[204]	Nigeria	Stem barks	Ethanol	Very good	Very good	Inactive	0.052—0.517 μg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium yoelii nigeriensis N67, Plasmodium falciparum	28.6–44.8%	Nd
Lannea schweinfurthii	Anacardiaceae	[205]	Kenya	Stem barks	Methanol	Moderate	Moderate	Very good	11.38–36.26 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2, Plasmodium berghei	91.37% at 100 mg/kg/day	Yes (SI = 6.21–19.79; Vero cells)
Lophira alata	Ochnaceae	[203]	Nigeria	Whole plant	Hexane	Good	Very good	Moderate	2.5 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum NF54, K1, Plasmodium berghei NK65	74.45% at 500 mg/kg/day	No
Ludwigia erecta	Onagraceae	[199]	Kenya	Whole plant	Water	Very good	Very good	In active	0.93–1.61 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 & W2, Plasmodium berghei ANKA	49.64% at 100 mg/kg/day	No
Maytenus putterlickioides	Celastraceae	[199]	Kenya	Root barks	Methanol	Good	Good	Very good	4.41–10.26 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2, Plasmodium berghei ANKA	78.66% at 100 mg/kg/day	No
Maytenus undata	Celastraceae	[199]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Good	Good	Very good	7.4–9.89 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2, Plasmodium berghei ANKA	76.29% at 100 mg/kg/day	No
Mimusops caffra	Sapotaceae	[206]	South Africa	Leaves	Dichloromethane	Good	Very good	Moderate	2.14 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D10, Plasmodium berghei	94.01% at 400 mg/kg/day	Nd
Schkuhria pinnata	Compositae	[199]	Kenya	Whole plant	Methanol	Good	Good	In actice	1.3–6.83 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 & W2, Plasmodium berghei ANKA	49.9% at 100 mg/kg/day	No
Sclerocarya birrea	Anacardiaceae	[205]	Kenya	Stem barks	Methanol	Moderate	Moderate	Very good	5.91–24.96 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2, Plasmodium berghei	63.49% at 100 mg/kg/day	No
Toddalia asiatica	Rutaceae	[117]	Kenya	Fruits	Ethyl acetate	Very good	Very good	Moderate	1.87 μg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum W2 & D6, Plasmodium berghei	81.34% at 500 mg/kg/day	No
Turraea robusta	Meliaceae	[205]	Kenya	Root barks	Methanol	Good	Good	Very good	2.09–10.32 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, W2, Plasmodium berghei	78.2% at 100 mg/kg/day	Yes (SI = 2.36–11.67; Vero cells)
Uapaca nitida	Phyllanthaceae	[207]	Tanzania	Root barks	Ethanol	Moderate*	Inactive	Inactive	19.6—25.9 µg/mL IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum K1, T9-96 & Plasmodium berghei	poor	No
Vernonia ambigua	Asteraceae	[208]	Nigeria	Ns	Water	Very good	Inactive	Very good	31.26–50 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium berghei, Plasmodium falciparum	60% at 100 mg/kg/day	No
Vernonia ambigua	Asteraceae	[209]	Republic of Congo	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	Very good	Moderate	3.58 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum. Plasmodium yoelii	61.28% at 500 mg/kg/day	No
Warburgia stuhlmannii	Camellaceae	[199]	Kenya	Stem barks	Water	Very good	Very good	Very good	1.81–2.33 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2, Plasmodium berghei ANKA	84.95% at 100 mg/kg/day	No
Azadirachta indica	Meliaceae	[143]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Good	Good	Good	6.24–7.53 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2	83.48% at 250 mg/kg/day	No
Dichrostachys cinerea	Fabaceae	[159]	Tanzania	Stem barks	Methanol	Moderate	Good	Moderate	2.37–11.92 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6, Dd2, Plasmodium berghei	53.12% at 400 mg/kg/day	No
Grewia plagiophylla	Malvaceae	[143]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	Moderate	Good	13.28–34.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2	77.9% at 250 mg/kg/day	Nd
Hoslundia opposita	Lamiaceae	[143]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	Good	Good	12.8–13.22 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2	79.67% at 250 mg/kg/day	Yes (SI = 0.58; Vero E6 cells)
Lannea schweinfurthii	Anacardiaceae	[143]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	Inactive	Good	38.87–54.15 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2	83.48% at 250 mg/kg/day	Yes (SI = 1.4; Vero E6 cells)
Premna chrysoclada	Lamiaceae	[143]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Good	Good	Good	7.75–9.02 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2	65.08% at 250 mg/kg/day	Nd
Rhus natalensis	Anacardiaceae	[143]	Kenya	Leaves	Methanol	Moderate	Inactive	Good	43.93–51.2 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2	82.7% at 250 mg/kg/day	Nd
Triphyophyllum peltatum	Dioncophyllaceae	[191]	Ivory coast	Roots, stem barks	Dichloromethane	Very good*	Very good	Very good	1.90 mg/kg for Dioncophylline C and 10.71 mg/kg for dioncophylline A	Plasmodium berghei ANKA CRS	99% at 50 mg/kg/day	Nd
Uvaria acuminata	Annonaceae	[143]	Kenya	Roots	Methanol	Good	Good	In active	6.90–8.89 µg/ml IC₅₀	Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2	27.0% at 250 mg/kg/day	Nd

Nd Not done, Ns Not specified, SI Selectivity index

^aActivity determined using pure compounds isolated from plant

Table 4

Clinical trial on African medicinal plants

Plant species	Plant family	Source	Country of study	Part of plant used	Extraction solvent	Crude extract?	Antimalarial activity	Parasite suppression rate	Strain of Plasmodium tested	Toxicity
Cochlospermum planchonii	Bixaceae	[210]	Burkina Faso	Roots	Ns	Yes	Moderate	52 at 600 ml/day	Plasmodium falciparum	No

Nd Not done, Ns Not specified

Family and species distribution of plants evaluated

From 722 studies, the most frequent plant families studied included Fabaceae 47 (6.5%), Euphorbiaceae 45 (6.2%), Annonaceae 37 (5.1%), Rubiaceae 37 (5.1%), Rutaceae 37 (5.1%), Meliaceae 30 (4.2%), and Lamiaceae 12 (1.7%). Five hundred and two (502) plant species were investigated in this study. Of them, the most investigated were: Azadirachta indica, Zanthoxylum chalybeum, Picrilima nitida, and Nauclea latifolia. The most frequent parts of the plants tested were the leaves, roots, root barkss, stems, and the whole plant. A majority of the studies used the crude extracts of the plants compared to pure compounds (95.7% vs. 4.3%). In descending order, methanol 322 (44.7%), dichloromethane 207 (28.7%), ethanol 103 (14.3%), water 85 (11.7%) and ethyl acetate 62 (8.6%) were the most frequent extraction solvent used.

In vitro and in vivo activities of the plants evaluated

Overall, 248 (34.3%) of the studies reported activity that was very good (IC₅₀ values < 5 µg/ml or suppression rate of ≥ 50% at 100 mg/kg body weight/day), 241 (33.4%) reported good activity and 233 (32.3%) reported moderate activity. For the in vitro studies, a majority 228 (38.6%) reported very good activity; 206 (34.9%) reported good activity and 187 (31.6%) reported moderate activity. Meanwhile for the in vivo studies, a majority 19 (21.1%) reported moderate activity, 16 (17.8%) reported very good activity and 13 (14.4%) reported good activity. For studies reporting both the in vitro and in vivo activity, a majority of 17 (42.5%) reported only moderate activity, 13 (32.5%) studies reported very good activity and 10 (25.0%) reported good activity. Among the plants with very good activity, only one species demonstrated very good activity both in vitro and in vivo (Table 3).

Among the studies, the most frequent plant species demonstrating very good antiplasmodial activity were: Alchornea cordifolia [3/3, 100%], Flueggea virosa [3/3, 100%], Cryptolepis sanguinolenta [¾, 75%], Zanthoxylum chalbeum [4/5, 80%] and Maytenus senegalensis [3/6, 50%]. Plant families with the most active species include Rutaceae [13/25, 52.0%], Apocynaceae [13/26, 50%], Celastraceae [7/15, 46.7%], Annonaceae [17/37, 45.9%], Euphorbiaceae [21/48, 43.8], Combretaceae [7/16, 43.8%], Fabaceae [18/47, 38.3%], Lamiaceae [8/23, 34.8%], Asteraceae [23/69, 33.3%], and Rubiaceae [8/37, 21.6%]. The fractions are derived from the count of studies reporting very good antiplasmodial activity (numerator) divided by the total number of studies that assessed the activity of that plant species (denominator).

Azadirachta indica and Vernonia amygdalina were the most frequently reported inactive species (Additional file 1: Table S1). Furthermore, Fabaceae, Rubiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Asteraceae were the plant families containing the most frequently reported inactive plants. A majority of 95.7% (691/722) of the studies used the crude extract of the plants. The antiplasmodial and/or anti-malarial activity was significantly higher (p = 0.044) in studies using pure compounds compared to those using crude preparations.

Toxicity of plants evaluated for their antiplasmodial and anti-malarial activity

Out of the 198 plants evaluated in toxicity assays, 52 (26.3%) were found to demonstrate some degree of toxicity. The most frequently reported plants with toxicity were Azadirachta indica and Vernonia amygdalina. Plant families harboring the most toxic species were Lamiaceae, Anacardiaceae, Moraceae, Meliaceae, Asteraceae, and Fabaceae. Approximately 33% of the plants tested demonstrated some toxicity in vitro and 26.7% had some degree of toxicity in vivo. Among plants with very good, good, and moderate antiplasmodial activity, 17.8%, 28.3%, and 35.4% had some degree of toxicity, respectively. The leaf was the plant part with the most frequently reported toxicity. Albino mice and Vero E6 cells were the most commonly used assays for the assessment of the toxicity of the plants.

Discussion

Resistance to the frontline anti-malarial drugs is increasing and is now a global concern. With this rising rate of resistance, there is a need to accelerate research into the discovery and development of new anti-malarial drugs. Unfortunately, from this study, it is evident that the progress into the discovery of a new anti-malarial drug in Africa is slothful. Despite a considerable number of plant species that have demonstrated significant antiplasmodial activity in vitro, fewer plants have been evaluated in vivo and only one clinical trial with Cochlospermum planchonii (Bixaceae) has been conducted so far. This reinforces the need for basic and clinical research in the region. Van Wyk [213] had also arrived at the same conclusion.

This review revealed research articles from 31 African countries. Most of the articles were from Nigeria. This is suggestive that Nigeria is leading the podium in research on anti-malarial drug discovery and development, deservedly so, because she is probably the most affected country in the world. It is noteworthy that South Africa which is generally more technologically advanced than Nigeria had very few (8) articles. The African region is the most affected in the world recording the greatest number of cases and malaria attributed deaths. However, the distribution of malaria in Africa is not even, with sub-Saharan Africa harboring disproportionately the greatest number of cases. This is suggestive that research to identify new anti-malarial drugs may be related to the burden of the disease, thus the government policy to control the disease. There is, therefore, the need for policy-driven research into new anti-malarial all across the African region. In this review, IC₅₀ values of < 20 µg/ml were considered as the cutoff of significant anti-malarial activity. This cutoff is considered the minimum to qualify as a first-pass “hit” in anti-malarial drugs screening [214]. Five hundred and two (502) plant species from 169 families were observed to have moderate to very good anti-malarial activity. The most investigated plant families were Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Rubiaceae, and Annonaceae. However, the plant families containing the most active plants were Apocynaceae, Celestraceae, and Rutaceae. This finding suggests that more emphasis should be given to plants in these families for anti-malarial drug discovery. Besides, the most investigated plant species were Azadirachta indica, Nauclea latifolia, Picralima nitida, and Zanthoxylum chalybeum. Alchornea cordifolia, Flueggea virosa, Crytolepis sanguinolenta, and Zanthoxylum chalybeum were the only plant species with consistently very good antiplasmodial and anti-malarial activities between studies. This is very surprising that no clinical trial using any of these plants has been conducted. Further studies on these plant species should be performed.

This study revealed that overall, a majority of the plants investigated had very good antiplasmodial activity in vitro. That activity decreases as you move to in vivo in most studies, with a majority of plants demonstrating only moderate activity. For example, Gathirwa et al. [146] showed that the activity of Uvaria acuminate decreased from good activity in vitro to inactive in vivo. However, a few studies show that plant activity could also increase from in vitro to in vivo. For example, Ngbolua et al. [211] showed that the activity of Vernonia ambigua increased from in vitro to in vivo analysis. Other examples include studies by Muthaura et al. [20] using Boscia angustifolia, Kweyamba et al. [162] using Commiphora Africana, and Ajaiyeoba et al. [204] using Annona senegalensis. This suggests that plants could still have significant anti-malarial activity in vivo although they failed to in vitro. Most investigators usually progress to in vivo studies only when they observe significant antiplasmodial activity in vitro. This may explain the findings of a smaller number of in vivo studies in the current study. The investigation of the anti-malarial activities of plants should continue in vivo despite the dismal performance of the plants in vitro.

The current study revealed substantial inter-study variation in the antiplasmodial activity of several plant species. For example, considerable variation in the antiplasmodial activity was observed for Senna occidentalis, Adansonia digitata, Acanthospermum hispidum, Rotheca myricoides, Anogeissus leocarpus, Annona muricata, Ageratum conyzoides, Albizia coriaria, Ekebergia capensis, Flueggea virosa, Lippia javanica, Maytenus senegalensis, Morinda lucida, Picralima nitida, Trichilia emetica, Vernonia amydalina, and Vernonia colorata. The factors that could have accounted for these differences may include differences in the extraction solvent thus the extraction yield and extracted metabolite. With dichloromethane, mainly the apolar metabolites are extracted. In contrast, with methanol, from polar to moderate apolar metabolites are extracted.

Most (95.7%) of the studies used crude extract for their investigation and rarely the pure compounds (Additional file 1: Table S2 presents a summary of active compounds that have been identified from some of the plants). The finding of a majority of studies in Africa using only the crude extract of plants may be attributed to the absence of the necessary infrastructure to process the plant materials to get the pure compounds. Furthermore, there may be geographical differences in the areas where the plants were collected and this may also affect the activity of the same plant species. For example, despite using the same extraction solvent, the antiplasmodial activity of Acacia nilotica was moderate in South Africa and very good in Sudan. There was also variation between the different assay types. For example, the activities of Vernonia ambigua [211] and Annona senegalensis [204] have been reported to increase from inactive in vitro to very good in vivo. However, a few plant species including Alchornea cordifolia, and Zanthoxylum chalybeum, were observed to be consistently very good between studies. These plant species should be exploited further for their antiplasmodial activity. The activities of the plants were equally observed to increase with the isolation of the active compounds thus reinforcing the need for research into identifying the active compounds of African medicinal plants. The marked difference in the antiplasmodial activity of the crude extract of Artemisia annua and the pure compounds points out the issue that even the compounds which show only low potency and may be discarded from the initial screen for further development may still have active components with therapeutic potential [215]. The strain of the Plasmodium used may also be another factor accounting for the inter-study variation observed; studies using chloroquine-sensitive strains of the parasite like P. falciparum 3D7, D6, NF54 tend to report higher antiplasmodial activity compared to studies using chloroquine-resistant strains like P. falciparum W2, Dd5, K1 or D10.

This study revealed that only a few (26.3%) of the plants demonstrated some degree of toxicity. The families hosting the most toxic plant species were Lamiaceae, Anacardiaceae, Moraceae, and Meliaceae. The most toxic plants were Azadirachta indica and Vernonia amygdalina. The former [168] is one of the few plant species that demonstrated very good antiplasmodial activity in some studies. Other plants with high toxicity but very good antiplasmodial/anti-malarial activities include Arenga engleri [25], Celtis integrifolia [52], Ficus platyhylla [50], Gutenbergia cordifolia [21], Helchrysum cymosum [97], Microglossa pyrifolia [92], Opilia celtidifolia [52], Quassia Africana [103], Rumex abyssinicus [92], Clausena anisota [157], Icacina senegalensis [171], Abutilon grandiflorum [200], and Lannea schweinfurthii [205]. The isolation of the active compounds, which has to be done, could eliminate the toxicity, if not all, to a certain degree. For example, Salvia radula crude extract (of aerial parts) has been shown to demonstrate some degree of toxicity, but betulafolientriol oxide isolated from the plant was very active with little or no toxicity against human kidney epithelial cells [120]. There was also considerable variation in the toxicity between the assay types (in vitro or in vivo). As many as 32.8% of the plants demonstrated some level of toxicity in vitro meanwhile 26.7% were toxic in vivo. Since it is customary to evaluate toxicity at the in vitro level and toxic plants are discarded before in vivo evaluation, that may explain while fewer plants were toxic in vivo. Toxicity varied within the same plant species from study to study and could be attributed to differences in the study design as well as differences in the parts of the plants used for testing. From this study, the most toxicity was observed with the leaves. Also, a relationship could be established between toxicity and antiplasmodial activity; as the activity of the plant increases, the toxicity, on the other hand, was observed to decrease. Furthermore, albino mice and Vero E6 cells were the most commonly used assays in the evaluation of toxicity. Unfortunately, the authors could nt make a meaningful relationship between the type of assay and toxicity because of the fewer studies assessing the toxicity of the medicinal plants.

This study, however, is limited in that the analyses may have been compounded by the substantial inter-study variation in the methodologies used by different independent studies for the extraction of plant material, the overall extraction yield, the diversity of extracted metabolites as well as the geographical variations in the different sites used in the plant collection. However, the study has provided important baseline data that may be exploited by researchers in the field for the discovery and development of new anti-malarial drugs.

Conclusion

This study has revealed the slothful progress in the discovery and development of new anti-malarial drugs from African medicinal plants. Despite the encouraging activities demonstrated by the plants in vitro, fewer plants have been evaluated in vivo and just one clinical trial has been conducted so far with Cochlospermum planchonii (Bixaceae). The study also revealed considerable inter-study variation in the antiplasmodial activities of the plants, however, the activity of some plants including Alchornea cordifolia, Azadirachta indica, and Zanthoxylum chalybeum was consistently very good. The study demonstrates a relationship between antiplasmodial activity and toxicity whereby the toxicity of the plants decreases as the antiplasmodial activity increases. Besides, the active compounds were identified in just a handful of the plants. Therefore, there is a need for a policy-driven approach in the discovery and development of new anti-malarial drugs to subvert the rising resistance to the frontline anti-malarial drugs in the world.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my special appreciation and thanks to Professor Dr. Wanderley de Souza for his helpful comments.

Declarations

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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Supplementary Information

Additional file 1: Table S1. In vitro and in vivo studies reporting inactive antiplasmodial or antimalarial activity. Table S2. List of active compounds identified from plants.

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Titel: Antiplasmodial, antimalarial activities and toxicity of African medicinal plants: a systematic review of literature
verfasst von: Elahe Tajbakhsh
Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti
Parya Kheyri
Saeed Nezaratizade
David S. Lindsay
Faham Khamesipour
Publikationsdatum: 01.12.2021
Verlag: BioMed Central
Erschienen in: Malaria Journal / Ausgabe 1/2021
Elektronische ISSN: 1475-2875
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-021-03866-0

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Abstract

Background

Methods

Results

Conclusions

Supplementary Information

Publisher's Note

Background

Methods

Search strategy and selection criteria

Categorization of antiplasmodial and anti-malarial activities

Risk of bias in individual studies

Results

Family and species distribution of plants evaluated

In vitro and in vivo activities of the plants evaluated

Toxicity of plants evaluated for their antiplasmodial and anti-malarial activity

Discussion

Conclusion

Acknowledgements

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Consent for publication

Competing interests

Publisher's Note

Supplementary Information

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