Functional C1-INH (fC1-INH, C1-INH activity) plasma levels are considered a reference test in the diagnosis of HAE due to C1-INH deficiency (C1-INH-HAE), particularly of type 2 [
14,
18‐
20]. However, there have been some concerns in relation to this test, including variability due to sample handling and time of storage or an increase in its levels in the course of inflammation and infection [
21‐
23]. In addition, different types of assays may yield divergent results [
19,
24]. Moreover, fC1-INH measurements can be affected by the presence of autoantibodies to C1-INH in the sample [
16], as well as by danazol treatment [
25] or plasma-derived C1-INH [
26]. Currently, fC1-INH levels are measured by a commercial chromogenic assay or an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which detects complexes formed by C1-INH and complement C1s, activated FXII, or plasma kallikrein (PKa) [
18,
21,
27]. However, functional assays have limited ability in detecting small changes over time [
18,
21]. Recently, a highly robust point-of-care test to measure fC1-INH in dried blood spot has been described [
28]. It is based on the quantitation of the enzyme reaction product by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry and is characterized by high reproducibility and accuracy, together with sample storage stability. Whereas the diagnostic value of functional C1-INH levels is well established, its value as a monitoring biomarker remains unclear. A predominant opinion is that the level of fC1-INH has little relationship to the clinical course of C1-INH-HAE [
13,
14]. Suffritti et al. showed lower fC1-INH in patients during attacks than during remission (31 and 131 patients, respectively) [
29]. However, Kajdasci et al. and Cugno et al. did not confirm this finding in their studies involving 18 and 28 patients with C1-INH-HAE, respectively [
30,
31]. Other studies focused on associations between C1-INH function and disease course. Kelemen et al. demonstrated that the baseline level of fC1-INH correlates with the HAE severity score [
32]. In a subsequent report by the same group, lower fC1-INH levels were observed in patients with a higher number of attacks and a higher need for C1-INH on-demand treatment [
33]. In turn, Bafunno et al. could not find a significant correlation between fC1-INH level and disease severity score or age of onset [
34]. Further insight was provided by clinical trials with plasma-derived C1-INH supplementation. A level of approximately 40% of fC1-INH appears to protect against angioedema attacks in most patients who received prophylactic treatment with subcutaneous C1-INH [
35], which is in line with previous clinical observations [
36,
37]. Therefore, these ranges of fC1-INH may serve as a prognostic biomarker of disease activity, i.e., assessment of likelihood of future attacks.
Antigenic C1-INH (AgC1-INH) plasma concentration is a critical diagnostic biomarker for the diagnosis of C1-INH-HAE type 1 [
38]. Its concentration can be measured by nephelometry, turbidimetry, or radial immunodiffusion, depending on local availability and cost [
23]. The results may be influenced by replacement therapy with C1-INH [
14]. In principle, AgC1-INH is not considered a valuable monitoring biomarker of the clinical course of the disease [
13,
14,
30,
31]. However, Spath et al. demonstrated most frequent attacks in patients with C1-INH-HAE when AgC1-INH levels were below 0.035 g/l [
39]. Other authors reported that AgC1-INH levels were lower during attacks [
29] or negatively correlated with the annual number of attacks [
33].
The protease-inhibitor complex C1-INH-C1(r,s) reflects contact system activation and thus may be considered a potential biomarker [
14]. Its plasma concentration, which can be determined by ELISA, is influenced by the amount of C1-INH present in plasma and is artificially low in C1-INH deficiency [
14,
33]. Plasma levels of C1-INH-C1(r,s) complexes were found to be higher in patients with C1-INH-HAE than in healthy controls [
33,
40] and increased further during angioedema attacks [
41]. Patients with higher C1-INH-C1(r,s) levels had a history of more severe attacks and more often required emergency treatment [
40]. Plasma C1-INH-C1(r,s) complex levels were reported to normalize in patients treated with stanozolol along with a reduction in symptoms [
42], thus showing promise as a biomarker for monitoring therapeutic response (a response biomarker) [
43].
Complement C4 serves as an important contributory diagnostic biomarker in C1-INH-HAE [
14,
38], because its level is reduced in most patients, especially during attacks [
16,
24]. Nevertheless, its performance as a monitoring biomarker is poor. Complement C4 was shown to correlate with the frequency of attacks and on-demand consumption of C1-INH concentrate [
33] but not with disease severity scores [
32]. No significant difference was observed in C4 levels between remission and acute abdominal attacks [
31].
Additional laboratory complement indices were also reported in HAE. Varga et al. found that
anti-C1-INH IgM antibody levels correlated with disease severity in C1-INH concentrate–naive patients [
44]. Other reports indicated that the levels of
Mannose-binding lectin-associated serine proteases
(MASP-1, MASP-1)-C1-INH complexes are lower in C1-INH-HAE patients and correlate with the frequency of attacks [
45], whereas the levels of
MASP-2 and ficolin-3/MASP-2 complexes increase during attacks [
46] (Table
1).