Background
Illustrative case
Systematic literature review
Methods
Results
Case | Age | Sex | Co-existing syndrome | Presenting symptoms | Spinal pathology/management | Follow-up duration | Surgical outcome | Molecular genetics | Other anomalies/management | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Neonate | F | Type 1 Stickler syndrome | Multiple anomalies at birth | 1. Cervical instability due to congenital lack of anterior ring of C1 and lack of C2 dens/NR | NR | NA | COL.2A1 heterozygous exon 32 c.2078G>A transition | 1. Micrognathia, glossoptosis, cleft palate/mandibular osteotomies 2. Stickler syndrome features 3. Sleep apnea/CPAP | [7] |
2 | Neonate | M | None | Multiple anomalies at birth | 1. Chiari type I malformation/none 2. Caudal regression syndrome/none 3. Tethered cord/surgical release | NR | NR | Normal karyotype | 1. Grade III gastroesophageal reflux/NR 2. Ventricular septal defect/NR 3. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia/NR 4. Bilateral inguinal hernia/NR 5. Multicystic dysplastic kidney/NR 6. Bilateral cryptorchism/NR 7.Bilateral short legs with malpositioned feet/NR 8. Grade I germinal matrix hemorrhage/NR | [8] |
3 | Neonate | F | None | Myoclonic activity and decerebrate rigidity | 1. Cervical stenosis/none | NR | NA | Normal microarray | 1. Micrognathia, glossoptosis, cleft palate/mandibular distraction osteogenesis | [9] |
4 | Neonate | M | SEDC | Multiple anomalies at birth | 1. Occipitocervical instability/ C1 posterior decompression, occiput-C2 fusion, odontoidectomy | NR | NR | Normal karyotype and microarray | 1. Micrognathia, glossoptosis, cleft palate/none 2. Gastroesophageal reflux/Nissen fundoplication and gastrostomy | [10] |
5 | 2 months | M | None | Multiple anomalies at birth | 1. Caudal regression syndrome/NR | NR | NA | NR | 1. Micrognathia, glossoptosis, cleft palate/NR | [11] |
6 | 3 months | M | Kniest dysplasia | Multiple anomalies at birth | 1. Platispondyly and vertebral body tongue-like bony protrusions/none | 1 month (mortality) | NA | NR | 1. Micrognathia, glossoptosis, cleft palate/tracheostomy 2. Hydrocephalus/none | [12] |
7 | 2 years | F | None | Quadriplegia | 1. Congenital cervico-thoracic kyphosis secondary to vertebral hypoplasia/extension and closed reduction 2. Complete spinal cord injury at kyphotic level C7/T1/none | NR | NR | Normal karyotype of proband and parents | 1. Micrognathia, glossoptosis, cleft palate/palatal pushback, bilateral myringotomy and tube placement 2. Speech and language delays secondary to otitis media/NR | [13] |
8 | 8 years | M | None | Abnormal cervical range of motion | 1. Occipitocervical instability of cervical spine due to ossification failure of anterior and posterior C1 arches/fusion from occiput to C2 | 1 yr | Complete symptom resolution | Normal karyotype | 1. Micrognathia, glossoptosis, cleft palate/oral airway 2. Ventricular septal defect, heart failure/surgery, digoxin 3. Hydrocele/surgery 4. Inguinal hernia/herniorrhaphy 3. Perthes disease/varus osteotomy | [14] |
9 | 8 years | F | None | NR | 1. Congenital thoracolumbar kyphoscoliosis/external orthosis, physiotherapy 2. Atlanto-occipital and atlanto-axial subluxation/none 3. Klippel-Feil syndrome/none | NR | NA | NR | 1. Micrognathia, glossoptosis, cleft palate/cleft palate repair | [15] |
10 | 14 years | M | None | NR | 1. Myelomeningocele/surgery 2. Cervico-thoracic kyphoscoliosis/NR 3. Tethered spinal cord/surgical release | NR | Complete symptom resolution | NR | 1. Micrognathia, glossoptosis, cleft palate/NR | [16] |
11 | 15 years | M | ISD | NR | 1. Spinal bifida, congenital vertebral dislocation, and severe congenital scoliosis/posterior spinal fusion C6 to L1 followed by C7 to T10 anterior spinal fusion with vertebral strut graft | 12 years | Iatrogenic incomplete SCI requiring decompression; worsened scoliosis | NR | 1. Micrognathia, glossoptosis, cleft palate/NR 2. Iatrogenic SCI/wheelchair 3. Autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability/NR 4. Neurogenic bowel and bladder/clean intermittent catherization 5. Sleep apnea/BiPAP and CPAP 4. Pelvic obliquity and iliac crest deformity/spinal-pelvic fusion 5. Bilateral hip subluxation and proximal femur deformity/surgery | [17] |
12 | 15 years | M | NF2 | Headache, ataxia | 1. Multiple extramedullary intradural lesions, separate C7-T1 neurofibroma/NR 2. Holocord syrinx most likely due to Chiari malformation/NR | NR | NA | Deletion of 22q12.1 to 22.q12.3, including MN1 and NF2 genes | 1. Micrognathia, glossoptosis, cleft palate/NR 2. Intellectual disability/NR 3. Severe bilateral hearing loss/hearing aids 4. Cerebellopontine schwannoma/resection | [18] |
13 | 15 years | F | None | Bilateral, progressive lower limb numbness, difficulty in walking, urinary incontinence | 1. Thoracic kyphoscoliosis/posterior fusion T1–T9 | 1 year | Complete symptom resolution | NR | 1. Micrognathia, glossoptosis, cleft palate/NR | [19] |
14 | 15 years | M | None | Occipital headache and gait disturbance | 1. Chiari type I malformation/suboccipital decompression 2. Congenital occiput-C1 and C2-C3 fusions/C1 and C2 laminectomy | 3 months | Complete symptom resolution | NR | 1. Micrognathia, glossoptosis, cleft palate/none | [20] |
15 | 22 years | F | 12q deletion syndrome | Skeletal abnormalities, endocrine derangements | 1. Thoracic scoliosis with congenital cervical and lumbar fusions/none 2. Klippel-Feil syndrome/none | NR | NA | Chromosome 12q13.2 to 12q13.3 deletion, including RPS26 and flanking genes | 1. Micrognathia, glossoptosis, cleft palate/none 2. Congenital perimebranous ventricular defect/none 3. Neurodevelopmental delay/none 4. Diamond-Blackfan anemia/NR 5. Trigeminal nerve palsy/NR 6. Bilateral mixed hearing loss/NR | [21] |
16 | 31 years | F | None | NR | 1. Scoliosis/spinal fusion | NR | NR | NR | NR | [22] |
17 | 6 months | F | 10q deletion syndrome | Multiple anomalies at birth | 1. Syringomyelia/none 2. Tethered cord/surgical release | 1 year | Complete resolution | Chromosome 10q26.11 to 10q26.3 deletion | 1. Micrognathia, glossoptosis, cleft palate/CPAP, mandibular distraction osteogenesis 2. GERD/Nissen fundoplication 3. Exotropia/medial rectus muscle recession | Present case |
Syndrome | Gene or chromosomal region | Gene function | Spinal pathology | Other clinical features |
---|---|---|---|---|
Campomelic dysplasia | SOX9 | Transcription factor, regulates chondrocyte differentiation, skeletal development and collagen formation | Scoliosis, short and flat cervical vertebrae | Short stature, campomelia, hearing loss |
Stickler syndrome type I | COL2A1 | Type II collagen | Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia | Ocular, auditory, skeletal, and orofacial abnormalities |
Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita | COL2A1 | Type II collagen | Short spine | Pectus carinatum, myopia |
Kniest dysplasia | COL2A1 | Type II collagen | Kyphosis, lumbar lordosis, atlantoaxial instability | Short trunk, short limbs, reduced joint mobility |
Diastrophic dysplasia | SLC26A2 | Sulfate transporter; extracellular matrix organization, endochondral bone formation | Kyphoscoliosis, hypoplasia of cervical vertebral bodies, spina bifida occulta | Short stature, short limbs, joint contractures, talipes equinovarus |
Cerebrocostomandibular syndrome | Unknown | Unknown | Scoliosis | Narrow thorax, rib anomalies, conductive hearing loss, growth restriction |
Cerebrocostomandibular-like syndrome | COG1 | Golgi complex component, glycosylation | Costovertebral defects | Microcephaly, growth restriction, developmental delay, brain anomalies, cryptorchidism |
Carey–Fineman–Ziter syndrome | Unknown | Unknown | Scoliosis | Hypotonia, moebius anomaly, growth delay, feeding difficulties |
Otospondylomegaepiphyseal dysplasia | COL11A2 | Type XI collagen | Vertebral body anomalies | Sensorineural hearing loss, enlarged epiphyses, short limbs, typical facial features |
Congenital disorder of glycosylation type IIg/CCMS | COG1 | Golgi complex component; glycosylation | Vertebral anomalies | Severe micrognathia, osteopenia, rib defects (rib gaps), mental retardation, growth retardation, microcephaly |
Ischiospinal dysostosis (ISD) | BMPER | Bone morphogenetic protein inhibition; osteoblast and chondrocyte regulation | Kyphoscoliosis, vertebral anomalies | Dysplasia/aplasia of ischial rami, peculiar facial morphologies |
22q11.2 deletion syndrome/velocardiofacial syndrome/DiGeorge syndrome | del 22q11.2 | Transcription factors; regulation of developmental processes | Upper cervical instability from odontoid hypoplasia or os odontoideum, congenital C2 to C3 fusion, dysmorphic dens | Cleft palate, cardiac anomalies, typical facies, learning disabilities |
Treacher Collins syndrome | TCOF1 | Ribosome biosynthesis | Dysmorphic atlas | Antimongoloid slant of the eyes, eyelid coloboma, micrognathia, microtia and other ear deformities, hypoplastic zygomatic arches, macrostomia, conductive hearing loss, cleft palate |
Neurofibromatosis 2 | NF2 | Merlin protein involved in myelination | Extramedullary spinal tumors | Vestibular schwannomas, benign tumors of nervous system |
Chromosome 12q deletion | del 12q | Transcription factors; regulation of developmental processes | Scoliosis | Developmental delay, intellectual disability, behavioral problems, and distinctive facial features |