Introduction
Methods
Study design
Baseline data, biochemical analyses and food frequency questionnaire
Statistical analysis
Results
Baseline characteristics
Retinol, μmol/L | 2.80 (1.26) |
Age, years | 60.8 (1.20) |
Male sex, n (%) | 2997 (71.9) |
Smokers, n (%) | 1321 (31.7) |
Body mass index, kg/m2 | 26.5 (1.16) |
Lipid parameters | |
Apolipoprotein B, g/L | 0.87 (1.31) |
Apolipoprotein A1, g/L | 1.29 (1.23) |
Triglycerides, mmol/L | 1.54 (1.67) |
Homocysteine metabolism, μmol/L | |
Methionine | 27.0 (1.30) |
Total homocysteine | 10.7 (1.38) |
Cystathionine | 0.28 (1.81) |
Total cysteine | 290 (1.14) |
Serine | 95.9 (1.26) |
Glycine | 211 (1.29) |
Inflammation | |
C-reactive protein, mg/mL | 3.64 (2.43) |
Uric acid, μmol/L | 347 (1.28) |
Neopterin, nmol/L | 8.57 (1.47) |
Fibrinogen, g/L | 3.61 (1.21) |
KTR | 2.43 (1.37) |
PAr | 0.51 (1.58) |
Extent of CVD | |
1–3 stenotic vessels, n (%) | 3120 (74.9) |
Previous acute myocardial infarction, n (%) | 1680 (40.3) |
Ejection fraction < 60%, n (%) | 3277 (78.7) |
Kidney function | |
Creatinine, μmol/L | 90.2 (1.22) |
Nutrients, E % | Mean (SD) |
---|---|
Vitamin A, RAE/1000 kcal | 945 (606) |
Protein | 16.7 (2.55) |
Carbohydrate | 48.9 (6.46) |
Total fat | 31.9 (5.61) |
PUFA | 7.21 (1.98) |
MUFA | 10.3 (2.03) |
SFA | 11.8 (2.65) |
Alcohol | 2.06 (3.16) |
Foods, g/1000 kcal | |
Meat | 54.8 (23.4) |
Vegetables | 105 (80.9) |
Fruits and berries | 124 (86.1) |
Eggs | 8.38 (6.30) |
Dairy | 154 (112) |
Fish | 53.7 (28.8) |
Biomarkers associated with retinol in the total population
Standardized β (95% CI) | β per 10% increase (95% CI) | p value | Adjusted R2 (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Lipid parameters | ||||
Total cholesterol | 0.14 (0.11, 0.17) | 1.47 (1.15, 1.8) | < 0.001 | 2.17 |
Apolipoprotein B | 0.14 (0.11, 0.17) | 1.37 (1.04, 1.51) | < 0.001 | 2.36 |
Apolipoprotein A1 | 0.21 (0.18, 0.24) | 2.44 (2.12, 2.81) | < 0.001 | 4.36 |
Triglycerides | 0.26 (0.23, 0.29) | 1.22 (1.10, 1.32) | < 0.001 | 7.08 |
Homocysteine metabolism | ||||
Methionine | − 0.04 (− 0.07, − 0.01) | − 0.36 (− 0.62, − 0.11) | 0.007 | 0.44 |
Total homocysteine | 0.21 (0.18, 0.24) | 1.52 (1.29, 1.75) | < 0.001 | 4.29 |
Cystathionine | 0.19 (0.16, 0.23) | 0.76 (0.21, 0.52) | < 0.001 | 3.80 |
Total cysteine | 0.26 (0.23, 0.29) | 4.81 (4.21, 5.32) | < 0.001 | 7.11 |
Serine | − 0.15 (− 0.18, − 0.11) | − 1.52 (− 1.88, − 1.17) | < 0.001 | 2.17 |
Glycine | 0.00 (− 0.03, 0.30) | 0.03 (− 0.27, 0.31) | 0.823 | 0.30 |
Inflammation | ||||
C-reactive protein | − 0.15 (− 0.18, − 0.12) | − 0.41 (− 0.49, − 0.32) | < 0.001 | 2.50 |
Uric acid | 0.30 (0.26, 0.33) | 2.81 (2.52, 3.23) | < 0.001 | 9.71 |
Neopterin | 0.22 (0.18, 0.25) | 1.43 (1.21, 1.62) | < 0.001 | 4.34 |
PAr | 0.12 (0.08, 0.15) | 0.60 (0.43, 0.76) | < 0.001 | 1.53 |
KTR | 0.15 (0.12, 0.19) | 1.14 (0.90, 1.38) | < 0.001 | 2.35 |
Fibrinogen | − 0.07 (− 0.10, − 0.04) | − 0.83 (− 1.25, − 0.42) | < 0.001 | 0.70 |
Body mass | ||||
Body mass index | 0.06 (0.029, 0.09) | 0.97 (0.47, 1.47) | 0.013 | 0.60 |
Kidney function | ||||
Creatinine | 0.38 (0.35, 0.42) | 4.51 (4.19, 4.93) | < 0.001 | 14.5 |
Associations between dietary intakes and serum retinol
Macronutrients | Standardized β (95% CI) | β per E % (95% CI) | p value | Adjusted R2 (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Protein | 0.063 (0.02, 0.11) | 0.52 (0.16, 0.89) | 0.005 | 1.10 |
Carbohydrate | − 0.062 (− 0.11, − 0.018) | − 0.21 (− 0.36, − 0.07) | 0.004 | 1.18 |
Total fat | 0.002 (− 0.041, 0.045) | − 0.02 (− 0.19, 0.14) | 0.77 | 0.70 |
PUFA | − 8e− 04 (− 0.045, 0.043) | − 0.11 (− 0.58, 0.36) | 0.65 | 0.79 |
MUFA | 0.022 (− 0.022, 0.065) | 0.15 (− 0.31, 0.61) | 0.53 | 0.83 |
SFA | − 0.0053 (− 0.048, 0.038) | − 0.12 (− 0.47, 0.22) | 0.48 | 0.81 |
Alcohol | 0.077 (0.026, 0.13) | 0.47 (0.15, 0.79) | 0.004 | 1.01 |
Micronutrient | β per 200 RAE/1000 kcal (95% CI) | |||
Vitamin A | 0.017 (− 0.029, 0.062) | 0.29 (− 0.03, 3.27) | 0.09 | 0.80 |
Foods | β per 50 g/1000 kcal (95% CI) | |||
Meat | 0.076 (0.032, 0.12) | 3.60 (1.54, 5.66) | < 0.001 | 1.30 |
Vegetables | 0.04 (− 0.0033, 0.084) | 0.91 (0.33, 1.50) | 0.002 | 1.15 |
Fruits and berries | 0.005 (− 0.039, 0.049) | 0.13 (− 0.41, 0.68) | 0.63 | 0.70 |
Eggs | 0.012 (− 0.032, 0.056) | 0.55 (− 7.13, 8.25) | 0.89 | 0.70 |
Dairy | 0.048 (0.0048, 0.092) | 0.41 (− 0.01, 0.82) | 0.06 | 0.91 |
Fish | − 0.0068 (− 0.051, 0.037) | − 0.02 (− 1.67, 1.61) | 0.97 | 0.72 |