Background
Methods
Participants
Groups | Yoga | Physical exercise |
---|---|---|
Age in years
| 10.4 (1.2) | 10.5 (1.3) |
Age range (years)
| 8 -12 | 8 -13 |
Gender ratio (B:G)
| 34:15 | 26: 23 |
Socio economic status
| Lower middle class | Lower middle class |
B.M.I. (kg/m
2
)
| 15.10 (1.69) | 15.36 (2.51) |
Right hand grip strength (kg)
| 15.67 (5.30) | 15.19 (6.00) |
Left hand grip strength (kg)
| 15.06 (4.98) | 14.31 (5.73) |
Design
Assessments
Physical fitness based on the Eurofit battery [19]
Anthropometry
Flamingo balance test
Plate tapping test
Standing broad jump
Handgrip test
Trunk strength
Bent arm hang
10 × 5 meter shuttle run
Cognitive function
Self-esteem
Analog scales
Interventions
Day 1 | Day 2 | Day 3 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sl. no. | Yoga practice | Duration | Yoga practice | Duration | Yoga practice | Duration |
1.
|
Start:
| 2 min. |
Start:
| 2 min. |
Start:
| 2 min. |
Sukhasana (Easy posture) + Gayatri Mantra | Padmasana (Lotus posture) + Mahamrityunjaya Mantra | Siddhasana (Perfect posture) + Prarthana Mantra | ||||
2. (i)
|
Pranayamas:
| 180 strokes/ 3 min. |
Pranayamas:
| 180 strokes/ 3 min. |
Pranayamas:
| 180 strokes/ 3 min. |
Kapalabhati (High frequency yoga breathing) | Kapalabhati (High frequency yoga breathing) | Kapalabhati (High frequency yoga breathing) | ||||
(ii)
| Bhastrika (Bellows breathing) | 36-50 strokes/ 3 min. | Bhastrika (Bellows breathing) | 36-50 strokes/ 3 min. | Bhastrika (Bellows breathing) | 36-50 strokes/ 3 min. |
(iii)
| Ujjayi (Victorious breathing) | 5-10 rounds/ 3 min. | Ujjayi (Victorious breathing) | 5-10 rounds/ 3 min. | Ujjayi (Victorious breathing) | 5-10 rounds/ 3 min. |
3.
|
Surya Namaskara
(Sun salutation)
| 4 rounds/ 4 min. |
Surya Namaskara
(Sun salutation)
| 6 rounds/ 4 min. |
Surya Namaskara
(Sun salutation)
| 8 rounds/ 4 min. |
4.(i)
|
Pranayamas:
| 12-15 rounds/ 3 min. |
Pranayamas:
| 12-15 rounds/ 3 min. |
Pranayamas:
| 12-15 rounds/ 3 min. |
Anulom-vilom (Alternate nostril breathing) | Anulom-vilom (Alternate nostril Breathing) | Anulom-vilom (Alternate nostril Breathing) | ||||
(ii)
| Bhramari (Bumble bee breathing) | 10-15 rounds/ 3 min. | Bhramari (Bumble bee breathing) | 10-15 rounds/ 3 min. | Bhramari (Bumble bee breathing) | 10-15 rounds/ 3 min. |
(iii)
| Udgeeth (OM chanting) | 8-10 rounds/ 3 min. | Udgeeth (OM chanting) | 8-10 rounds/ 3 min. | Udgeeth (OM chanting) | 8-10 rounds/ 3 min. |
5.
|
Asanas:
|
Asanas:
|
Asanas:
| |||
(i)
|
Sitting postures:
| 5 min. |
Sitting postures:
| 5 min. |
Sitting postures:
| 5 min. |
Butterfly Pose (for warm up), Padmasana (Lotus posture) , Vajrasana (Diamond posture),Sasankasana (Rabbit posture) , Singhasana (Lion posture) | Butterfly Pose (for warm up), Ardha Ustrasana (Half camel posture), Gomukhasana (Cow’s face posture), Paschimottanasana (Back stretching posture), Singhasana (Lion posture) | Butterfly Pose (for warm up), Ardha Matsyendrasana (Half spinal twist) (both sides) , Gomukhasana (Cow’s face posture), Singhasana (Lion posture) | ||||
(ii)
|
Prone postures:
| 4 min. |
Prone postures:
| 4 min. |
Prone postures:
| 4 min. |
Makarasana (Crocodile posture), Balasana (Child posture), Bhujaangasana (Cobra posture), Dhanurasana (Bow posture) | Balasana (Child posture), Bhujaangasana (Cobra posture), Dhanurasana (Bow posture) Salabhasana (Locust posture) | Makarasana (Crocodile posture), Bhujaangasana (Cobra posture), Dhanurasana (Bow posture), Mayurasana (Peacock posture) | ||||
(iii)
|
Supine postures:
| 4 min. |
Supine postures:
| 4 min. |
Supine postures:
| 4 min. |
Uttana padasana (Raised legs posture), Pavanamuktasana, Naukasana (Boat posture) | Uttana padasana (Raised legs posture), Pavanamuktasana Sarvangasana (Shoulder stand posture), Halasana (Plough posture) | Uttana padasana (Raised legs posture), Naukasana (Boat posture), Halasana (Plough posture), Chakrasana (Wheel posture) | ||||
(iv)
|
Standing postures:
| 5 min. |
Standing postures:
| 5 min. |
Standing postures:
| 5 min. |
(side bending and twisting as warm up) Tadasana (Palm tree posture), Tiryak Tadasana (Swaying palm tree posture), Vrikshasana (Tree posture), Garudasana (Eagle posture), Konasana (Angle posture) | (side bending and twisting as warm up) Tadasana (Palm tree posture), Tiryak Tadasana (Swaying palm tree posture), Ardha chakrasana (Half wheel posture), Padhastasana (Forward bending posture), Konasana (Angle posture) | (side bending and twisting as warm up) Tadasana (Palm tree posture), Tiryak Tadasana (Swaying palm tree posture) Veerbhadrasana (Warrior posture), Ardha chakrasana (Half wheel posture), Padhastasana (Forward bending posture | ||||
6.
|
For relaxation:
| 3 min. |
For relaxation:
| 3 min. |
For relaxation:
| 3 min. |
Savasana (Corpse posture), Hasyasana (Laughter yoga) | Yoganidra (Yogic sleep), Hasyasana (Laughter yoga) | Savasana (Corpse posture), Hasyasana (Laughter yoga) | ||||
Total timings
| 45 minutes |
Total timings
| 45 minutes |
Total timings
| 45 minutes |
Sl. no. | Name of exercise | Timing for each exercise (in minutes) | Recovery time (in minutes) (without instruction) |
---|---|---|---|
1
|
Jogging in place
|
8
|
1
|
(i) Slow jogging | |||
(ii) Thighs perpendicular to the trunk | |||
(iii) Knees flexed, feet directed sideways | |||
(iv) Knees flexed, heels touching the buttocks | |||
2
|
Rapid bending forwards & backwards
|
5
|
1
|
(i) With legs together | |||
(ii) With legs apart | |||
3
|
Bending sideways
|
5
|
1
|
(i) With legs together | |||
(ii) With legs apart | |||
4
|
Spinal twisting
|
3
|
1
|
5
|
Relay races/games
|
18
|
2
|
Total time of intervention
| 45 minutes |
Data extraction
Physical fitness based on the Eurofit battery
Cognitive function
Self-esteem
Analog scales
Data analysis
Results
Variables | n | Yoga (n = 49) | Physical exercise (n = 49) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre | Post | Cohen’s d | Pre | Post | Cohen’s d | ||
B.M.I. (kg/m
2
)
| 49 | 15.10 (1.69) | 16.34 (1.88)*** | 0.6936 | 15.36 (2.51) | 16.60 (2.78)*** | 0.4681 |
Bent arm (seconds)
| 49 | 3.64 (4.2) | 2.60 (4.32) | 0.2441 | 3.99 (8.84) | 3.29 (6.63) | 0.0895 |
Plate tapping (seconds)
| 49 | 17.98 (3.56) | 16.37 (2.96)*** | 0.4917 | 17.46 (3.41) | 16.85 (3.05) | 0.1885 |
Shuttle run (seconds)
| 49 | 25.14 (2.47) | 25.15 (2.20) | 0.0042 | 26.09 (2.55) | 25.44 (2.28) | 0.2687 |
Broad jump (cm)
| 49 | 120.44 (28.18) | 116.74 (20.95) | 0.1490 | 111.41 (27.50) | 112.58 (21.80) | 0.0471 |
No. of sit-ups in 30 sec
| 49 | 9.61 (5.60) | 12.18 (5.90)*** | 0.4468 | 8.63 (6.28) | 11.37 (5.51)*** | 0.4638 |
Right hand grip strength (kg)
| 48 | 15.67 (5.30) | 16.65 (5.54) | 0.1807 | 15.19 (6.00) | 15.67 (5.36) | 0.0843 |
Left hand grip strength (kg)
| 48 | 15.06 (4.98) | 15.88 (5.30) | 0.1594 | 14.31 (5.73) | 14.98 (5.73) | 0.1169 |
Flamingo balance right (no. of falls)
| 48 | 1.63 (2.06) | 2.50 (4.27) | 0.2595 | 1.29 (1.81) | 2.83 (4.26)** | 0.4705 |
Flamingo balance left (no. of falls)
| 48 | 0.98 (1.50) | 1.65 (3.42) | 0.2537 | 1.56 (2.68) | 2.19 (3.46) | 0.2035 |
Variables | Yoga (n = 43) | Physical exercise (n = 43) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre | Post | Cohen’s d | Pre | Post | Cohen’s d | |
Word raw score
| 63.63 (18.77) | 68.70 (21.26)** | 0.2528 | 61.60 (18.94) | 68.65 (18.14)*** | 0.3801 |
Word T score
| 48.70 (9.97) | 51.33 (11.47)** | 0.2447 | 47.30 (10.25) | 51.09 (9.75)*** | 0.3788 |
Color raw score
| 43.86 (9.41) | 48.63 (9.21)*** | 0.5123 | 43.09 (9.58) | 50.02 (9.83)*** | 0.7140 |
Colore T score
| 42.12 (6.00) | 44.47 (5.85)** | 0.3965 | 41.21 (6.21) | 45.88 (6.18)*** | 0.7538 |
Color-word raw score
| 25.77 (6.98) | 29.30 (8.43)** | 0.4561 | 27.88 (7.49) | 30.86 (6.97)** | 0.4119 |
Color-word T score
| 38.35 (8.28) | 42.60 (9.48)** | 0.4775 | 40.88 (8.34) | 44.93 (7.66)** | 0.5057 |
Interference raw score
| −18.09 (7.60) | −19.56 (8.43) | 0.1831 | −15.21 (8.17) | −19.35 (7.34)** | 0.5330 |
Interference T-score
| 46.09 (10.26) | 48.23 (8.09) | 0.2344 | 43.28 (10.30) | 47.88 (8.11)* | 0.4962 |
Variables | Yoga (n = 47) | Physical exercise (n = 47) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre | Post | Cohen’s d | Pre | Post | Cohen’s d | |
Total Score of S.E.
| 33.51 (6.46) | 36.98 (4.82)*** | 0.6088 | 35.13 (5.62) | 36.74 (5.40) | 0.2921 |
General S.E
| 11.68 (2.83) | 13.68 (2.24)*** | 0.7836 | 12.36 (2.79) | 13.28 (2.71) | 0.3345 |
Social S.E
| 5.62 (1.49) | 6.06 (1.76) | 0.2698 | 6.43 (1.51) | 6.77 (1.56) | 0.2214 |
Academic S.E
| 7.89 (1.82) | 8.28 (1.21) | 0.2523 | 7.91 (1.77) | 8.02 (1.64) | 0.0644 |
Parental S.E.
| 8.32 (2.05) | 8.96 (1.38)* | 0.3662 | 8.43 (1.33) | 8.68 (1.35) | 0.1865 |
Variables | Yoga (n = 49) | Physical exercise (n = 49) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre | Post | Cohen’s d | Pre | Post | Cohen’s d | |
Obedience
| 6.05 (2.36) | 7.59 (1.46)*** | 0.7847 | 5.98 (2.12) | 7.68 (1.23)*** | 0.9808 |
Academic performance
| 5.25 (2.32) | 7.48 (1.85)*** | 1.0628 | 5.13 (2.72) | 7.733 (1.33)*** | 0.2158 |
Attention
| 5.48 (2.27) | 7.42 (1.19)*** | 1.0704 | 5.32 (2.50) | 7.71 (1.41)*** | 1.1776 |
Punctuality
| 6.28 (2.23) | 7.87 (1.50)*** | 0.8366 | 6.23 (2.72) | 7.94 (1.36)*** | 0.7952 |
Behavior with friends
| 6.61 (1.89) | 7.78 (1.04)*** | 0.7670 | 6.53 (1.84) | 7.86 (1.09)*** | 0.8794 |
Behavior with teachers
| 7.16 (1.67) | 8.35 (1.19)*** | 0.8206 | 7.01 (1.68) | 8.39 (0.98)*** | 1.0034 |
Repeated measures analyses of variance (RMANOVA)
Sl. no. | Factors | Variable | F | df | Huynh-Feldt ϵ | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I
|
Within subjects (states)
|
B.M.I
| 249.242 | 1,94 | 1 | 0.000 |
Bent arm hang
| 1.605 | 1,94 | 1 | 0.208 | ||
Shuttle run
| 1.204 | 1,96 | 1 | 0.275 | ||
Sit-ups
| 29.569 | 1,96 | 1 | 0.000 | ||
Plate tapping
| 20.870 | 1,94 | 1 | 0.000 | ||
Broad jump
| 0.327 | 1,96 | 1 | 0.569 | ||
Flamingo balance Rt leg
| 13.600 | 1,94 | 1 | 0.000 | ||
Flamingo balance Lt leg
| 4.048 | 1,94 | 1 | 0.047 | ||
Grip strength Rt hand
| 4.447 | 1,94 | 1 | 0.038 | ||
Grip strength Lt hand
| 6.361 | 1,94 | 1 | 0.013 | ||
II
|
Between subjects (groups)
|
B.M.I
| 0.330 | 1,94 | - | 0.567 |
Bent arm hang
| 0.201 | 1,94 | - | 0.655 | ||
Shuttle run
| 2.598 | 1,94 | - | 0.251 | ||
Sit-ups
| 0.701 | 1,94 | - | 0.867 | ||
Plate tapping
| 0.001 | 1,94 | - | 0.974 | ||
Broad jump
| 2.149 | 1,94 | - | 0.146 | ||
Flamingo balance Rt leg
| 0.087 | 1,94 | - | 0.769 | ||
Flamingo balance Lt leg
| 1.300 | 1,94 | - | 0.257 | ||
Grip strength Rt hand
| 0.455 | 1,94 | - | 0.502 | ||
Grip strength Lt hand
| 0.589 | 1,94 | - | 0.804 | ||
III
|
Group × states
|
B.M.I
| 0.011 | 1, 94 (Groups) × 94 (States) | - | 0.917 |
Bent arm Hang
| 0.28 | 1, 94 (Groups) × 94 (States) | - | 0.868 | ||
Shuttle run
| 1.335 | 1, 94 (Groups) × 94 (States) | - | 0.251 | ||
Sit-ups
| 0.028 | 1, 94 (Groups) × 94 (States) | - | 0.867 | ||
Plate tapping
| 4.222 | 1, 94 (Groups) × 94 (States) | - | 0.043 | ||
Broad jump
| 1.211 | 1, 94 (Groups) × 94 (States) | - | 0.274 | ||
Flamingo balance Rt leg
| 1.798 | 1, 94 (Groups) × 94 (States) | - | 0.183 | ||
Flamingo balance Lt leg
| 0.004 | 1, 94 (Groups) × 94 (States) | - | 0.948 | ||
Grip strength Rt hand
| 0.523 | 1, 94 (Groups) × 94 (States) | - | 0.471 | ||
Grip strength Lt hand
| 0.062 | 1, 94 (Groups) × 94(States) | - | 0.804 |
Sl. no. | Factors | Variable | F | df | Huynh-Feldt ϵ | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I
|
Within subjects
|
Word raw score
| 25.025 | 1,84 | 1 | 0.000 |
Word T score
| 22.336 | 1,84 | 1 | 0.000 | ||
Color raw score
| 62.842 | 1,84 | 1 | 0.000 | ||
Color T score
| 37.286 | 1,84 | 1 | 0.000 | ||
Color-word raw score
| 19.517 | 1,84 | 1 | 0.000 | ||
Color-word T score
| 23.838 | 1,84 | 1 | 0.000 | ||
Interference raw score
| 7.923 | 1,84 | 1 | 0.006 | ||
Interference T score
| 7.869 | 1,84 | 1 | 0.006 | ||
II
|
Between subjects
|
Word raw score
| 0.067 | 1,84 | - | 0.796 |
Word T score
| 0.146 | 1,84 | - | 0.704 | ||
Color raw score
| 0.027 | 1,84 | - | 0.870 | ||
Color T score
| 0.047 | 1,84 | - | 0.828 | ||
Color-word raw score
| 1.634 | 1,84 | - | 0.205 | ||
Color-word T score
| 2.263 | 1,84 | - | 0.136 | ||
Interference raw score
| 1.253 | 1,84 | - | 0.266 | ||
Interference T score
| 0.985 | 1,84 | - | 0.324 | ||
III
|
Group × states
|
Word raw score
| 0.666 | 1, 84 (Groups) × 84 (States) | - | 0.417 |
Word T score
| 0.733 | 1, 84 (Groups) × 84 (States) | - | 0.394 | ||
Color raw score
| 2.141 | 1, 84 (Groups) × 84 (States) | - | 0.146 | ||
Color T score
| 4.088 | 1, 84 (Groups) × 84 (States) | - | 0.046 | ||
Color-word raw score
| 0.143 | 1, 84 (Groups) × 84 (States) | - | 0.706 | ||
Color-word T score
| 0.015 | 1, 84 (Groups) × 84 (States) | - | 0.902 | ||
Interference raw score
| 1.804 | 1, 84 (Groups) × 84 (States) | - | 0.183 | ||
Interference T score
| 1.051 | 1, 84 (Groups) × 84 (States) | - | 0.308 |
Sl. no. | Factors | Variable | F | df | Huynh-Feldt ϵ | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I
|
Within subjects
|
Academic self esteem
| 1.950 | 1,92 | 1 | 0.166 |
General S.E.
| 18.637 | 1,92 | 1 | 0.168 | ||
Parental S.E.
| 6.857 | 1,92 | 1 | 0.069 | ||
Social S.E.
| 4.292 | 1,92 | 1 | 0.041 | ||
Total S.E.
| 19.583 | 1,92 | 1 | 0.000 | ||
II
|
Between subjects
|
Academic self esteem
| 0.167 | 1,92 | 0.683 | |
General S.E.
| 0.103 | 1,92 | - | 0.749 | ||
Parental S.E.
| 0.097 | 1,92 | - | 0.756 | ||
Social S.E.
| 8.016 | 1,92 | - | 0.006 | ||
Total S.E.
| 0.475 | 1,92 | - | 0.493 | ||
III
|
Group × states
|
Academic self esteem
| 0.623 | 1, 92(states) × 92 (Groups) | - | 0.432 |
General S.E.
| 2.583 | 1, 92(states) × 92 (Groups) | - | 0.111 | ||
Parental S.E.
| 1.259 | 1, 92 (states) × 92 (Groups) | - | 0.265 | ||
Social S.E.
| 0.078 | 1, 92(states) × 92 (Groups) | - | 0.780 | ||
Total S.E.
| 2.595 | 1, 92(states) × 92 (Groups) | - | 0.111 |
Sl. no. | Factors | Variable | F | df | Huynh-Feldt ϵ | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I
|
Within subjects
|
Obedience
| 76.418 | 1,96 | 1 | 0.000 |
Academic performance
| 141.506 | 1,96 | 1 | 0.000 | ||
Attention
| 132.197 | 1,96 | 1 | 0.000 | ||
Punctuality
| 51.118 | 1,96 | 1 | 0.000 | ||
II
|
Between subjects
|
Obedience
| 0.001 | 1,96 | - | 0.975 |
Academic performance
| 0.034 | 1,96 | - | 0.854 | ||
Attention
| 0.027 | 1,96 | - | 0.869 | ||
Punctuality
| 0.002 | 1,96 | - | 0.969 | ||
III
|
Group × states
|
Obedience
| 0.214 | 1, 96 (Groups) × 96 (States) | - | 0.645 |
Academic performance
| 0.856 | 1, 96 (Groups) × 96 (States) | - | 0.357 | ||
Attention
| 1.375 | 1, 96 (Groups) × 96 (States) | - | 0.244 | ||
Punctuality
| 0.069 | 1, 96 (Groups) × 96 (States) | - | 0.794 |