Introduction
Method
Eligibility criteria
Population
Interventions
Comparators
Outcomes
Study designs
Literature search and study selection
Electronic searches
Hand searches
Data extraction
Risk of bias assessment
Statistical analysis
Measures of intervention effect
Sensitivity analysis
Sources of possible bias
Moderator analysis
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Risk of bias (low vs. some concerns vs. high).
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Type of comparator (no-treatment control vs. WLC vs. TAU vs. non-specific factors component control vs. specific factors component control vs. active comparator).
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Length of follow up (short: post-intervention - less than 3 months vs. medium: 3–6 months vs. long: 7–11 months vs. extended:12 months+).
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Severity of depression at baseline (severe vs. moderate vs. mild), calculated using baseline mean scores and clinical cut offs for each depression measure.
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Type of CBT intervention (CBT vs. BA vs. problem solving).
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Interventions including additional social components (yes vs. no). Social components were defined as structured activities to improve social support e.g., partner session(s) or networking and communication skill building.
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Interventions including parenting intervention components (yes vs. no). Parenting intervention components were defined as including specific support in relation to the parent-infant relationship, for example specific sessions with a therapist, video feedback, or self-help materials (e.g., video interaction guidance) [77].
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Time point of intervention (prenatal vs. postnatal).
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Health professional delivering intervention (nursing professionals vs. social workers vs. psychologists vs. junior mental health workers vs. peers).
Protocol amendments
Results
Study selection
Study characteristics
Study | MDD Ax Yes/No (method) | Depression severity at baseline m | Participant ethnicity n, % | Sample n | Recruitment setting | Control condition | Depression outcome measure, time points | Country | LMIC Country m |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alhusen et al. [87] | No | Moderate | African American 54, 90.0% | 60 | Clinical | TAU | EPDS, PI, 3 MFU | USA | No |
White 6, 10.0% | |||||||||
Ammerman et al. [88] | Yes (SCID) | Severe | Race | 93 | Clinical | TAU | EPDS, PI, 3 MFU | USA | No |
White 58, 62.4% | |||||||||
African American 30, 32.3% | |||||||||
Native American 1, 1.1% | |||||||||
Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander 2, 2.2% | |||||||||
Bi-racial 2, 2.2% | |||||||||
Ethnicity | |||||||||
Latina 7, 7.5% | |||||||||
None 86, 92.5% | |||||||||
Burns et al. [89] | Yes (CIS-R) | Moderate | Ethnicity | 36 | Clinical | TAU | EPDS, PI, 4 MFU | UK | No |
White 30, 83.3% | |||||||||
Dimidjian et al. [90] | No | Moderate | Race | 163 | Clinical | TAU | PHQ-9, PI | USA | No |
White 95, 58.3% | |||||||||
Black 45, 27.6% | |||||||||
Asian 7, 4.3% | |||||||||
Other 16, 9.8% | |||||||||
Hispanic ethnicity | |||||||||
25, 15.3% | |||||||||
Forsell et al. [91] | Yes (SCID) | Moderate | NI | 42 | Mixed | TAU | MADRS-S, PI | Sweden | No |
Fuhr et al. [92] | No | Moderate | NI | 280 | Clinical | Enhanced TAU | PHQ-9, PI, 3 MFU | India | Yes |
Honey et al. [85] | No | Moderate | NI | 45 | Clinical | TAU | EPDS, PI, 6 MFU | UK | No |
Hughes et al. [32] | Yes (SCID) CO | Moderate | White 14, 20.0% | 70 | Clinical | TAU | EPDS, PI, 3 MFU | USA | No |
Black 10, 14.3% | |||||||||
Hispanic 41, 58.6% | |||||||||
Other 5, 7.1% | |||||||||
Khamseh et al. [83] | No | Mild | NI | 70 | Clinical | TAU | BDI-II, PI, 1 MFU | Iran | Yes |
Lund et al. [93] | Yes (MINI) | Mild | NI | 425 | Clinical | Enhanced TAU | HDRS, PI, 9 MFU | South Africa | Yes |
McKee et al. [86]a | No | Moderate | Black 81, 43.3% | 187 | Clinical | TAU | BDI-II, PI | USA | No |
Hispanic 106, 56.7% | |||||||||
Meager & Milgrom, [84]a | No | Severe | Australian born 16, 80.0% | 20 | Clinical | WLC | EPDS, PI | Australia | No |
From Ireland, Scotland and the United Kingdom 4, 20.0% | |||||||||
Milgrom et al. [94] | Yes (CIDI) screening | Moderate | NI | 192 | Clinical | TAU | BDI-II, PI | Australia | No |
Milgrom et al. [73] | No | Moderate | Born in Australia 56, 82.4% | 68 | Clinical | Enhanced TAU | BDI-II, PI | Australia | No |
Milgrom et al. [95] A | Yes (SCID) screening | Severe | Born in Australia 42, 77.8% | 54 | Clinical | TAU | BDI-II, PI, 11 MFU | Australia | No |
Milgrom et al., [96] B | Yes (CIDI) screening | Severe | NI | 45 | Clinical | AC | BDI-II, PI, 3 MFU | Australia | No |
Milgrom et al., [97] | Yes (SCID) | Moderate | Born in Australia 39, 90.7% | 43 | Mixed | TAU | BDI-II, PI | Australia | No |
Misri et al. [98] | No | Moderate | White 22, 62.9% | 35 | Clinical | AC | EPDS, PI | Canada | No |
South Asian 5, 14.3% | |||||||||
First Nations 3, 8.6% | |||||||||
Mexican 1, 2.9% | |||||||||
Spanish 1, 2.9% | |||||||||
Indo-Canadian 1, 2.9% | |||||||||
Italian 1, 2.9% | |||||||||
South American 1, 2.9% | |||||||||
Morrell et al. [99] | No | Unknown | White British 390, 93.3% | 418 | Clinical | TAU | EPDS, PI | UK | No |
Nasiri et al. [100] | No | Moderate | NI | 120 | Clinical | TAU | BDI-II, PI | Iran | Yes |
Ngai et al. [101]a | No | NI | NI | 397 | Clinical | TAU | EPDS, PI, 6 MFU | Hong Kong | No |
O’Mahen et al. [102]A | Yes (SCID) screening | Moderate | African American 32, 58.2% | 55 | Clinical | TAU | BDI-II, PI, 3 MFU | USA | No |
White 17, 30.9% | |||||||||
Asian 4, 7.3% | |||||||||
Other 2, 3.6% | |||||||||
O’Mahen et al. [103]B | No | Severe | NI | 910 | Internet | TAU | EPDS, PI | UK | No |
O’Mahen et al. [104] | Yes (CIS-R) screening | Severe | White/British 77, 92.8% | 83 | Internet | TAU | EPDS, PI, 6 MFU | UK | No |
Asian 1, 1.2% | |||||||||
Mixed white/African/Caribbean 2, 2.4% | |||||||||
African 1, 1.2% | |||||||||
Other 2, 2.4% | |||||||||
Pugh et al. [105] | YES (MINI) screening only | Moderate | Caucasian 45, 95.7% | 47 | Mixed | WLC | EPDS, PI | Canada | No |
Other 2, 4.3% | |||||||||
Rojas et al. [106] | YES (MINI) screening | Moderate | NI | 230 | Clinical | Enhanced TAU | EPDS, PI, 3 MFU | Chile | No |
Sikander et al. [107] | No | Moderate | NI | 570 | Community | Enhanced TAU | PHQ-9, PI, 3 MFU | Pakistan | Yes |
Trevillion et al. [108] | YES (SCID) | NI | White 35, 66.0% | 53 | Mixed | TAU | EPDS, PI, 3 MFU | UK | No |
Black: 14, 26.4% | |||||||||
Asian: 1, 1.9% | |||||||||
Mixed/Other: 3, 5.7% | |||||||||
Van Lieshout et al. [109] | No | Moderate | White 291, 72.2% | 403 | Mixed | TAU | EPDS, PI | Canada | No |
Wiklund et al. [110]a | No | Moderate | Born in Sweden 61, 91.0% | 67 | Clinical | TAU | EPDS, PI | Sweden | No |
Wozney et al. [111]a | Yes (SCID) | Moderate | NI | 62 | Mixed | TAU | EPDS, PI, 6 & 12 MFU | Canada | No |
Study | Time point of intervention m | Type of CBT intervention m | Method of delivery m | No. of sessions/ modules | Health professional m | Social support m | Parenting componant m | Fidelity | Study specific training |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alhusen et al. [87] | Pre | CBT | Group | 6 | Mixed (SW & nurse) | Topic: social support systems, communication styles, and getting needs met | Incorporates attachment theory. Topics: stressors affecting mother-baby relationship and intergenerational transmission of thought patterns | Checklists and notes to ensure all content was covered | Training provided |
Ammerman et al. [88] | Post | CBT | IHI | 15 plus booster | MHP | No | Skills-based strategies used to increase maternal sensitivity to child cues | Checklists to ensure all content was covered. Supervision (weekly, provided by doctoral level clinicians) | NI |
Burns et al. [89] | Pre | CBT | IHI | 12 | MHP | No | No | Sessions rated with CTS-R. Sessions recorded monitored for adherence (10%). Supervision (weekly) | Trained to deliver the intervention until judged to be competent by a PSY with specialist perinatal expertise |
Dimidjian et al. [90] | Pre | BA | IHI | 10 | HP | No | No | Sessions rated with the QBAS. Role-plays rated by two BA experts | Training provided by authors included 2 days of in-person workshops and self-paced reading followed by ongoing weekly group telephonic supervision (90 min) and individual supervision (30 min). |
Forsell et al. [91] | Pre | CBT | G/MC self-help | 10 plus optional modules | MHP | No | No | NI | E-therapists had basic CBT training but no prior experience nor any special education or training in order to treat this specific population |
Fuhr et al. [92] | Pre | BA | IHI | 6 to 14 | NSP | Collaboration with the family | No | Sessions rated with TQS. Group supervision (fortnightly, once a month with a supervisor present and once a month without a supervisor present) | 25–40 h of classroom-based training. Comprised discussion and roleplays. A clinical internship period of 2 months followed the training. At the end of their training period competence was judged using standardized roleplays. Only those who passed predefined competence assessments were selected |
Honey et al. [85] | Post | CBT | Group | 8 | HP | No | No | NI | NI |
Hughes et al. [32] | Post | CBT | IHI | 16 | MHP | No | No | Supervision (weekly) | NI |
Khamseh et al. [83] | Pre | PS | Group | 5 | Mixed (PSY nurse) | No | No | NI | NI |
Lund et al. [93] | Pre | PS & BA | IHI | 6 | NSP | No | No | Checklists to ensure all content was covered. Supervision (weekly, group based with clinical social worker) | 5 days of training by a clinical SW in basic counselling and delivery of the intervention |
McKee et al. [86]a | Pre | CBT | IHI | 8 CBT plus 4 parenting sessions | MHP | Social support building sessions. Unstructured opportunities for supportive companionship | Four child-development psychoeducational modules. Topics: sensitive and responsive mothering | NI | NI |
Meager & Milgrom, [84]a | Post | CBT | Group | 10 | MHP | Partner session (n = 1). Group environment of social and emotional support | No | NI | NI |
Milgrom et al. [94] | Post | CBT | Group | 12 (3 with partner) | MHP | Partner sessions (n = 3) | No | Checklists to ensure all content was covered | One-to-one instruction in use of the therapy manuals and regular, intensive supervision from the principal investigator |
Milgrom et al. [73] | Post | CBT | IHI | 6 | Mixed (PSY and nurse) | Partner session (n = 1) | No | NI | Half-day training workshop in the CBT intervention. The training was conducted by a senior PSY with several years experience in delivering CBT for postnatal depression |
Milgrom et al. [95] A | Pre | CBT | IHI | 8 | MHP | Partner session (n = 1) | No | Checklists and notes to ensure all content was covered | Training provided for pregnancy-specific CBT programme |
Milgrom et al. [96] B | Post | CBT | Group | 12 | MHP | Partner sessions (n = 3) | No | Checklists to ensure all content was covered | NI |
Milgrom et al., [97] | Post | CBT | G/MC self-help | 6 | MHP | Access to literature for partner | No | NI | Training included working through the program (as if they were a participant), reading the coach manual, observing other coaches’ complete calls, and a verbal explanation from a senior PSY about the role and the tasks involved |
Misri et al. [98] | Post | CBT | IHI | 12 | MHP | No | No | NI | NI |
Morrell et al. [99] | Post | CBT | IHI | 8 | HP | No | No | NI | Trained to deliver psychologically informed sessions based on cognitive behavioral principles |
Nasiri et al. [100] | Post | PS | IHI | 6 | Mixed (Midwife & PSY) | No | No | NI | A clinical psychologist supervised performance on the first 10 participants |
Ngai et al. [101]a | Post | CBT | IHI | 5 | HP | No | No | Supervision (bi-weekly and tape review (10%) by the research team) | 20 hours of CBT training |
O’Mahen et al. [101]A | Pre | CBT | IHI | 12 | MHP | No | No | Sessions rated with CTS-R. Supervision (weekly and tape review (10%) by clinical supervisor) | Training consisted of: reading the manual, review and training in key concepts with either the principal investigator or clinical supervisor and co-investigator, and completion of an initial participant under close supervision |
O’Mahen et al. [103]B | Post | BA | Unguided self help | 11 | n/a | Topic: addressing support with new mother. Netmums ‘meet a mum’ feature, to connect with other women in their local area | No | NI | n/a |
O’Mahen et al. [104] | Post | BA | G/MC self-help | 12 | MHP | Netmums ‘meet a mum’ feature, to connect with other women in their local area | No | Supervision (weekly and tape review (20%) with chief investigator) | 5 days of training in the ‘high-intensity’ (functional analysis-based) perinatal-specific BA approach. Training involved a mix of didactics and roleplay around conducting functional analysis in perinatal-specific domains with the chief investigator, a clinical PSY with specialty expertise in BA and perinatal depression, and an IAPT trainer |
Pugh et al. [105] | Post | CBT | G/MC self-help | 7 | MHP | No | No | NI | A training workshop |
Rojas et al. [106] | Post | CBT | Group | 8 | HP | No | No | Supervision (weekly) | 8 hours of training |
Sikander et al. [107] | Pre | BA | IHI | 14 | NSP | Collaboration with the family | No | Sessions rated with ENACT rating scale. Supervision (group) | Brief classroom training and regular group training. Field supervision by local trainers who were not mental health specialists, and these trainers were supervised by a specialist therapist, generating a cascade model of training and supervision |
Trevillion et al. [108] | Pre | CBT | G/MC self-help | 8 | MHP | No | No | Checklists to ensure all content was covered. Sessions rated with CTS-R. Randomly selected tape review (20%) by PSY | Trained to deliver the intervention |
Van Lieshout et al. [109] | Post | CBT | Group | 1 | MHP | Section on getting support from others | No | Practitioners observed delivering trial workshops prior to RCT | 1 day classroom training |
Wiklund et al. [110]a | Post | CBT | IHI | NI | HP | No | No | NI | NI |
Wozney et al. [111]a | Post | CBT | G/MC self-help | 12 plus booster | NSP | Partner/companion information brochure | No | Supervision (weekly) with an expert clinician | Training involved reading the handbook, observing others complete calls and verbal modelling and explanations from a senior clinician about the role and the tasks involved |
Participants
Intervention
Meta-analysis results for primary outcomes
Sensitivity analyses
Sources of possible bias
Moderator analysis
Moderators | No of comparisons | Hedges’ g | 95%CI | Q Between | P value | I2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Risk of bias | 27 | −0.5 | −0.62 to −0.38 | 1.45 | 0.23 | |
High | 1 | −0.38 | −0.61 to −0.14 | 0 | ||
Some concerns | 26 | −0.54 | −0.68 to −0.41 | 66.46 | ||
Type of control | 27 | −0.37 | −0.45 to −0.28 | 24.74 | < .001* | |
Active control | 2 | −0.34 | −0.84 to 0.16 | 0 | ||
Enhanced TAU | 6 | −0.21 | −0.32 to −0.10 | 0 | ||
TAU | 18 | −0.64 | −0.80 to −0.49 | 59.41 | ||
WLC | 1 | −1.05 | −1.71 to −0.40 | 0 | ||
Length of follow up | 27 | −0.47 | −0.58 to −0.36 | 4.75 | 0.09 | |
Long | 2 | −0.3 | −0.52 to −0.09 | 0 | ||
Medium | 13 | −0.47 | −0.65 to −0.29 | 62.96 | ||
Short | 12 | −0.64 | −0.86 to −0.42 | 66.62 | ||
Severity of depression at baseline | 25 | −0.52 | −0.62 to −0.43 | 4.59 | 0.1 | |
Mild | 2 | −0.28 | −0.53 to −0.03 | 21.11 | ||
Moderate | 18 | −0.62 | −0.82 to −0.41 | 75.10 | ||
Severe | 5 | −0.55 | −0.66 to −0.43 | 0 | ||
Type of CBT intervention | 27 | −0.43 | −0.53 to −0.32 | 9.50 | 0.02* | |
BA | 5 | −0.33 | −0.54 to −0.21 | 73.63 | ||
CBT | 19 | −0.57 | −0.71 to −0.42 | 41.98 | ||
PS | 2 | −1.24 | −2.70 to 0.23 | 92.53 | ||
PS & BA | 1 | −0.21 | −0.42 to −0.01 | 0 | ||
Interventions including social components | 27 | −0.53 | −0.66 to −0.40 | 0.39 | 0.53 | |
No | 15 | −0.58 | −0.77 to −0.38 | 68.06 | ||
Yes | 12 | −0.49 | −0.67 to −0.31 | 66.87 | ||
Interventions including parenting components | 27 | −0.49 | −0.62 to −0.37 | 1.4 | 0.24 | |
No | 25 | −0.48 | −0.61 to −0.36 | 61.04 | ||
Yes | 2 | −1.02 | −1.89 to −0.15 | 83.28 | ||
Method of delivery | 27 | −0.54 | −0.64 to −0.44 | 1.66 | 0.65 | |
Group | 7 | −0.55 | −0.80 to −0.30 | 59.53 | ||
Individual High Intensity | 14 | −0.47 | −0.66 to −0.28 | 69.61 | ||
Guided/minimal contact self-help | 5 | −0.72 | −1.08 to −0.37 | 42.44 | ||
Self-administered self-help | 1 | −0.55 | −0.68 to −0.41 | 0 | ||
Point of intervention | 27 | −0.53 | −0.66 to −0.41 | 0.31 | 0.58 | |
Prenatal | 11 | −0.48 | −0.70 to −0.27 | 54.33 | ||
Postnatal | 15 | −0.57 | −0.74 to −0.40 | 70.67 | ||
Professional delivering intervention | 26 | −0.37 | −0.44 to −0.29 | 23.19 | < .001* | |
Health provider | 5 | −0.35 | −0.50 to −0.20 | 0 | ||
Mental health provider | 15 | −0.56 | −0.69 to −0.43 | 0 | ||
Mixed providers | 3 | −1.31 | −2.20 to −0.42 | 86.76 | ||
Non-specialist providers | 3 | −0.17 | −0.30 to −0.05 | 0 | ||
Post hoc moderator | ||||||
Low middle income country | 27 | −0.53 | −0.64 to −0.42 | 0.05 | 0.82 | |
Yes | 5 | −0.49 | −0.85 to −0.13 | 35.15 | ||
No | 22 | −0.53 | −0.65 to −0.42 | 87.13 |
Risk of bias
Meta-analysis results for secondary outcomes
Outcome | No of studies | Random effects | Heterogeneity | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hedges g | 95% CI | Z | P value | P value | Q Between | I2 | Prediction Intervals | ||
Anxiety | 14 | −0.44 | −0.55 to −0.33 | −7.76 | < .001 | 0.77 | 9.02 | 0.000 | All studies share a common effect size |
Individual stress | 5 | −0.56 | −0.80 to −0.32 | −4.49 | < .001 | < .001 | 2.99 | 0.001 | All studies share a common effect size |
Perceived parental stress | 4 | −0.16 | −0.77 to 0.45 | −0.51 | 0.61 | < .001 | 21.33 | 85.80 | −3.66 to 3.34 |
Self-report parenting | 4 | 0.94 | −0.01 to 1.88 | 1.96 | 0.05 | < .001 | 43.69 | 93.13 | −3.61 to 5.49 |
Perceived social support | 6 | 0.25 | 0.14 to 0.36 | 4.46 | < .001 | 0.32 | 5.88 | 14.95 | −0.41 to 0.91 |