Background
Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by thrombotic events and/or pregnancy morbidity in the presence of persistent antiphospholipid antibodies (APLA), namely lupus anticoagulant (LAC), anticardiolipin (aCL) IgG and/or IgM antibodies, and/or anti-β
2 glycoprotein I (β
2GPI) IgG and/or IgM antibodies [
1]. The mechanism of clot formation is considered multifactorial and remains largely unknown. Although the prevalence of APLA in the general population ranges between 1% and 5%, clinically overt thrombotic APS develops in only a minority of affected individuals, suggesting that the presence of APLA alone is not sufficient to trigger clot formation, and a “second hit” with another, perhaps inflammatory, factor is required [
2].
There is increasing evidence that the pathogenesis of APS involves innate immune activation, particularly via toll-like receptors (TLRs). The TLR family of pattern recognition receptors plays a pivotal role in infectious and autoimmune diseases [
3]. TLR-4 is a cell-surface receptor for bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) that is mainly expressed in the cells of the innate immune system. Studies have shown that β
2GPI binds to endothelial cells through TLR-4, among other receptors [
3,
4], and interacts with LPS. These findings support the hypothesis that the LPS/β
2GPI complex, by activating signaling pathways in monocytes similar to the action of LPS, may account for TLR-4 involvement in the pathogenesis of thrombosis in APS [
5,
6]. Several in-vivo studies using animal models of APS have shown that thrombus size was smaller in the LPS-nonresponsive mice (LPS
−/−) than the LPS-responsive mice [
7]. Additionally, a recent study of patients with primary APS (PAPS) reported an increase in the level of expression of TLR-2 and TLR-4 mRNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in association with evidence of endothelial dysfunction, arterial stiffening, and hypertrophy [
8].
Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 (TREM-1) is a recently identified DAP-12-associated cell-surface receptor expressed mainly on monocytes and neutrophils. It is involved in the amplification of TLR-4-mediated inflammatory responses [
9,
10]. The expression of TREM-1 is upregulated in response to LPS, and its colligation with TLR-4 results in greater production of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines than induced by either TREM-1- or TLR-4-mediated activation alone [
9‐
12]. At the same time, the soluble form of TREM-1 (sTREM-1) is released and apparently exerts an anti-inflammatory effect, as indicated by findings of its inverse correlation with tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β in murine sepsis [
13]. Taken together, these studies suggest that TREM-1 upregulation is associated with and amplifies TLR-4-mediated monocyte/macrophage activation and that the blood sTREM-1 level correlates with monocyte/macrophage membrane TREM-1 upregulation and innate immune cell activation.
In light of the growing evidence of the role of innate immunity, and TLR-4 in particular, in the pathogenesis of thrombosis in APS, we sought to investigate the plasma level of sTREM-1 in a cohort of patients with PAPS, the clinical association of sTREM-1 with thrombotic PAPS, and the possible use of sTREM-1 as a biomarker of thrombotic events in PAPS.
Discussion
In this case-control study, we found significantly elevated levels of plasma sTREM-1 in patients with current thrombotic PAPS compared with past thrombotic PAPS patients as well as compared with asymptomatic persistent positive APLA carriers and healthy controls (Table
2, Figs.
1,
2, and
3). Plasma sTREM-1 levels positively correlated with thrombotic events in patients with PAPS (Table
2) as well as with high levels of the inflammatory biomarkers ESR (
r = 0.4,
p = 0.009) and hsCRP (
r = 0.4,
p = 0.02, Fig.
4), suggesting that it is associated with a low-grade inflammatory state. Interestingly, neither APLA titers nor the presence of single, double, or triple positivity was correlated with levels of plasma sTREM-1 in our cohort.
Although persistently positive triple-positive APLA is a strong risk factor for thrombosis in APS [
19], the presence of APLA is by itself not sufficient to trigger clot formation [
3]. Previous findings in patients with APS of elevated levels of inflammatory markers, including CRP and serum amyloid-A [
20‐
25] relative to controls, as well as activated monocytes [
26] and increased production of proinflammatory cytokines relative to controls [
27,
28], suggest that PAPS is associated with a low-grade inflammatory state and an innate immune response. Inflammation involving the activation of endothelial cells, monocytes, and platelets has been shown to play a role in clot formation in animal models of APS [
29‐
31]. Anti-β
2GPI antibodies can trigger endothelial cell surface molecules such as annexin A2 (bound by β
2GPI) and TLR-4 [
32] and induce monocytes to increase tissue factor expression and release tumor necrosis factor α [
33].
An experimental study of arterial thrombosis comparing wild-type with TLR-4-deficient mice treated with APLA [
34] showed that TLR-4 modulates APLA-mediated prothrombotic effects by increasing monocyte production of tissue factor [
34]. Moreover, mice treated with APLA together with a TLR-4 agonist (LPS) expressed higher levels of tissue factor activity in plasma and leukocytes [
34]. Similarly, another in-vivo study found that clot size was smaller in LPS-nonresponsive mice (LPS
−/−) than in LPS-responsive mice [
7]. Accordingly, human anti-β
2GPI antibodies derived from patients with thrombotic APS showed upregulated tissue factor expression in a TLR-4-, p38 MAP kinase-, and NF-kappaB-dependent pathway [
35]. These findings are in line with the two-hit hypothesis of APS-associated thrombosis which suggests that a “first hit” injury disrupts the endothelium and a “second hit” potentiates thrombus formation [
3].
TREM-1 is a newly identified member of the immunoglobulin superfamily of receptors expressed in TLR-4-mediated activated macrophages and neutrophils. Activation of the innate immune system in response to such triggers as LPS-mediated TLR-4 activation leads to degranulation, respiratory burst, release of proinflammatory cytokines, and phagocytosis [
36]. During bacterial invasion, the TLR-4-induced inflammatory response is amplified [
9‐
12,
37] by the integration of TLR-4 with activated membrane TREM-1 [
38]. Studies in humans have shown that upregulation of monocyte- and neutrophil-membrane TREM-1 during endotoxemia is associated with an increased release of sTREM-1 in blood and other biological fluids [
13,
39]. This process also occurs in various noninfectious, chronic inflammatory disorders [
40], including rheumatoid arthritis [
41,
42] and systemic lupus erythematosus [
17,
43]. Thus, the plasma level of sTREM-1 may serve as a reliable biomarker for TLR-4-mediated innate immune activation in infectious as well as sterile inflammatory disorders, including autoimmune diseases.
The results of our study suggest that thrombotic PAPS is characterized by an innate immune activation state, in accordance with earlier reports of activated monocytes in patients with APS [
26‐
28]. Indeed, APLA-induced activation of the TLR-4-dependent signaling pathway in endothelial cells [
4] and monocytes [
34,
44], as well as neutrophils [
45], has been demonstrated in APS. A TLR-4-mediated innate immune activation along with TREM-1 upregulation is supported by the correlation found in our study between elevated plasma levels of sTREM-1 and a low-grade inflammatory state in the patients with current or past thrombotic events. Thus, TREM-1 upregulation might be involved in the TLR-4-mediated mechanism of clot formation in APS. Another potential role for TREM-1 in thrombotic APS was suggested by recent data showing that TREM-1 is constitutively expressed in platelet α-granules and which, upon platelet activation, is mobilized to the platelet surface [
46]. Pharmacologic inhibition of TREM-1 in platelets from humans and also from trem-1
−/− mice reduced both the platelet activation as well as the platelet aggregation induced by collagen, adenosine diphosphate, and thrombin [
46]. Moreover, in vivo TREM-1 inhibition decreased thrombus formation in a carotid artery model of thrombosis and protected mice during pulmonary embolism. Thus, TREM-1 may participate in platelet aggregation, a pivotal step in clot formation.
Plasma sTREM-1 levels were positively correlated with older age in the healthy control group (
r = 0.63,
p < 0.0001) but not in the PAPS and asymptomatic APLA carrier groups. Given the physiological decrease in glomerular filtration rate with aging [
18], we assume this finding is attributable to decreased renal clearance of sTREM-1. The lack of association of the plasma sTREM-1 level with age or eGFR in the patients with PAPS and the asymptomatic APLA carriers suggests that neither age nor renal function has clinical significance with respect to plasma sTREM-1 levels in these patient groups.
Our study has several limitations. The small number of asymptomatic APLA carriers in our cohort and the cross-sectional design of the study preclude any conclusions regarding the power of plasma sTREM-1 levels to predict a thrombotic event in asymptomatic APLA carriers or patients with obstetric PAPS. These issues warrant a prospective, longitudinal study of a larger group of asymptomatic APLA carriers. Further studies are also needed to determine whether plasma sTREM-1 levels can discriminate arterial from venous thrombosis. As we excluded pregnant women with APLA, we could not determine the significance of plasma sTREM-1 in predicting the occurrence or severity of obstetrical fetal and maternal morbidity in APS.