Introduction
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is categorized as one of the chronic metabolic disorders that is characterized by hyperglycemia with subsequent insulin resistance and is considered a prominent cause of death worldwide. According to the survey carried out by the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) during 2017, it was expected that the rate of disease incidence would increase more and more in the next few years (Søfteland et al.
2019).
The DM induces several complications, not only in peripheral organs but also in the central nervous system, due to alterations in the glycometabolism (Stranahan
2015). Initially, the effects of diabetes on the brain may be undetectable, but the gradual decrease in blood supply to neurons can finally cause brain atrophy (Yarube and Mukhtar
2018). Diabetes has an increased risk of developing neurological complications such cognitive impairment (brain fog), vascular dementia, diabetic neuropathy, Alzheimer’s disease, and other neurodegenerative diseases (Nduohosewo and Ekong
2020). The DM is commonly associated with several neuropsychiatric comorbidities, such as depression, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder (Ringin et al.
2023). The Hippocampal dysfunction, such as memory dysfunction, is considered one such complication that is associated with disability and the development of dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, and depression (Weerasinghe-Mudiyanselage et al.
2022). Diabetic encephalopathy, diabetes-associated cognitive decline, cerebral impairment and central neuropathy have been used to describe mild to moderate diabetes-related cognitive dysfunction (Li et al.
2019).
The changes induced by oxidative stress in the structure and function of the macromolecules (proteins, lipids and DNA) are related to the etiology of diabetes and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis dysregulation that may be attributed to impaired neurogenesis and the synthesis of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (Zanoveli et al.
2016). Therefore, it is necessary to understand the etiology of the disease to innovate therapeutic strategies for hippocampal memory dysfunction induced by diabetes.
Metformin is considered one of the first-line anti-diabetic drugs commonly used for treating DM (Zhou et al.
2018). It exhibits its hypoglycemic activity by decreasing the production of hepatic glucose and increasing the utilization of glucose by skeletal myocytes (Turban et al.
2012). Therefore, the experimental studies carried out on animal models revealed the efficiency of alternative anti-diabetic agents compared to those of metformin, which is a commercially available drug. In 2021, Kułaczkowska et al. (
2021) postulated that it is necessary to re-evaluate the efficacy and therapeutic effect of metformin due to the multifactorial mechanisms of the disease and its complications. Due to the serious micro- and macro-vascular complications of the disease, no single medication is absolutely effective for the treatment of the disease. Therefore, it is necessary to undergo further studies to search for new medications that aid in attenuating the progression of the disease and its possible complications (Izzo et al.
2021). Kashtoh and Baek (
2023) proposed that plant derived drugs with anti-diabetic properties are frequently considered to be cheaper and have low toxicity compared to the other synthetic ones.
Terminalia chebula (
T. chebula) is native to Southeast Asia and India. It is mentioned as the "King of Medicines" in Ayurvedic Materia Medica and used in Egyptian folk medicine. It is well known that
T. chebula fruits are rich in various active phyto-constituents like tannins, polyphenols and triterpenoids that are categorized as powerful antioxidant, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-mutagenic and anti-diabetic agents in addition to their maltase inhibitory activity (Sheng et al.
2018). Choi et al. (
2015) demonstrated that the
T. chebula extract exhibited a protective effect against a hepatic injury model due to its antioxidant capacities and scavenging activity, in addition to modulating inflammatory reactions. A recent study carried out by Eltimamy et al. (
2022) showed that the ethanolic
T. chebula extract has anti-diabetic, anti-lipidemic, hepatoprotective and renoprotective effects against DM and this is probably attributed to the promotion of insulin release beside the insulin-like action of its phyto-constituents (Abu-Odeh and Talib
2021). Therefore, the present study was designed to appraise the efficiency of ethanolic
T. chebula extract against neuroinflammation and oxidative stress induced in the brains of diabetic rats.
Discussion
During the current study, it was noticed that the ethanolic
T. chebula fruit extract is rich in polyphenolic compounds and total tannins. This agrees with polyphenolic compounds and total tannins. This agreed with Rani et al. (
2018) who reported that there is a linear co-relationship between these phenolic compounds and the reducing power of the extract. The antioxidant and iron reducing power of the
T. chebula extract might be attributed to their phenolic constituents (Saha and Verma
2016). The reduction of DPPH by
T. chebula extract was either due to the transfer of a hydrogen atom from the phenolic compounds, which are considered effective hydrogen donors (Sheng et al.
2018). The reductive capacity of these phenolic compounds depends on the presence of reductones, which exhibit their potential by breaking the free radical chain and donating a hydrogen atom. Consequently, the radical chain reactions were terminated and may otherwise be very damaging (Sun et al.
2014).
In our study, the
T. chebula extract possessed a high inhibitory effect on the activities of α-amylase and α-glucosidase compared to acarbose (the standard drug). This agreed with Kifle et al. (
2020) and was supported recently by Aboulthana et al. (
2022) who demonstrated that the presence of phenolic acids and tannins is responsible for the inhibitory effect on the activities of these enzymes. The native extract exhibited anti-Alzheimer (anti-cholinesterase) activity, and this might be attributed to increasing the antioxidant activities, which are strongly related to the anti-diabetic and anti-Alzheimer activities (Russo et al.
2015). Therefore, the extract that possesses antioxidant activities exhibits anti-diabetic and anti-Alzheimer activities. The anti-inflammatory activity was assayed by measuring the efficiency of the extract in inhibiting protein denaturation and the activity of proteinase enzyme (Hassan et al.
2023). Ability of the extract to inhibit proteinase denaturation and proteinase enzymes refers to the apparent potential for anti-inflammatory activity (Ayman et al.
2023).
The pathogenesis of the brain dysfunction induced as a result of the incidence of diabetes is not fully understood. The brain is the most susceptible organ to glucose fluctuations and inflammation. The hyperglycemia affected both metabolic and vascular pathways, leading to disturbances in widespread brain regions and compromised brain function (Wu et al.
2021). In the early stages of diabetes, cognitive impairment might occur. Therefore, it is necessary to identify key markers of early neuronal dysfunction (Piatkowska-Chmiel et al.
2021).
During the present study, it was noticed that levels of TAC and GSH decreased in the brains of diabetic rats, and this agreed with Tian et al. (
2016) who showed that the antioxidants decreased in the brains due to inducing the formation of reactive species via glucose autoxidation and/or glycation of proteins non-enzymatically. Both LPO and TPC were elevated significantly in the brains of diabetic rats due to overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that interact with lipids and proteins (Pandey and Rizvi
2010). The ethanolic
T. chebula extract increased the antioxidants and reduced the products of the peroxidation reactions. This was in agreement with Khalaf et al. (
2019) who postulated that the extract prevented the alterations induced by oxidative stress and maintained a near normal antioxidant status due to the presence of the active phyto-constituents that can act as singlet oxygen scavengers and hydrogen atom donors. Therefore, they possess antioxidant properties.
Neuroinflammation and oxidative stress are the pathological hallmarks of most neurodegenerative diseases. Activation of astrocytes and microglia as a result of injuries to the central nervous system leads to the subsequent release of proinflammatory cytokines and hence neuronal death (El-Shamarka et al.
2022). The present study revealed that levels of IL-1β, TNF-α and MCP-1 elevated significantly in the brains of diabetic rats and this agreed with Piatkowska-Chmiel et al. (
2021) who reported that levels of these pro-inflammatory cytokines increased due to their positive correlation with cognitive disturbances. Mushtaq et al. (
2015) added that the production of these cytokines is closely related to accelerating the neurodegeneration process. The pro-inflammatory cytokines were elevated due to the abnormally differentiated vascular endothelia cells and perivascular macrophages, which might reveal an exaggerated inflammatory response characterized by elevating the secretion of these cytokines (Sochocka et al.
2017). Also, DM might be accompanied by exaggerated glial cell activation, which leads to the release of large amounts of inflammatory agents (Khandelwal et al.
2011). The ethanolic
T. chebula extract ameliorated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and this agreed with Jung et al. (
2019) who emphasized that the
T. chebula extract is rich in various chemical constituents like chebulanin, chebulic acid, chebulagic acid, chebulinic acid, corilagin, gallic acid and ellagic acid that exert anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in addition to their ability to inhibit histamine secretion.
AChE exhibits its effective role in the cholinergic nervous system by hydrolyzing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (after completing its role in maintaining memory function) into choline and acetate. Therefore, it is responsible for transporting the nerve signals and terminating synaptic transmission (Contestabile
2011). It was found that levels of ACHE and Aβ contents were elevated significantly in the brains of diabetic group during the current study. This agreed with Ahmed et al. (
2011) who emphasized that there is a direct correlation between ACHE and Aβ contents. Therefore, the elevated Aβ binds directly to nicotinic receptors, leading to elevation of the ACHE content in and around Aβ plaques. Moreover, the ACHE is able to form Aβ-ACHE complex (more toxic) after co-localization with Aβ deposits, which consequently promote the assembly of the Aβ into amyloid fibrils (Holmquist et al.
2007). The
T. chebula extract decreased the activity of ACHE, and this agreed with Mathew et al. (
2013) who demonstrated that this fruit was chosen as an efficacious candidate as a source of potent AChE inhibitors as well as antioxidants. Therefore, this plant species is traditionally used for treating Alzheimer’s disease and disorders of the central nervous system. Also, it decreased the Aβ contents due to inhibiting the AChE enzyme, which consequently prevents the formation of β-amyloid plaques (Mathew and Subramanian
2012).
The histopathological examination is used for assessing the brain damage induced as a result of DM incidence, and it was noticed that the hippocampus, which involved in learning and memory, is the most sensitive region to hyperglycemia compared to other brain regions (Zheng et al.
2017). The present study showed that the lesions occurred severely in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus and striatum regions of the brain tissue in diabetic rats. This was in agreement with Huang et al. (
2022) who reported that degeneration of the neurons in the thalamic nuclei, cingulate cortex and hippocampus in the brains of diabetic rats might be related to increasing the production of ROS. Yongue et al. (
2014) suggested that the changes induced by DM in cognitive function with altering brain activity in the hippocampus region might be attributable to the decreasing number of pyramidal neurons in the rat hippocampus of diabetic rats. The
T. chebula extract decreased the severity of lesions in brain tissue, and this agreed with Shen et al. (
2017) who reported that the plant extract is characterized by the presence of ellagic acid, which is responsible for the neuroprotective efficacy by reducing the influx of calcium ions and inhibiting the production of ROS. Lin et al. (
2022) proposed that the total phenolic and tannin content present in
T. chebula extract exert neuroprotective activity due to their scavenging activities against excessive hydroxyl and peroxyl radicals and improving the antioxidant systems.
The alterations in the protein pattern detected electrophoretically might be related to the oxidative stress and elevated free radical formation induced in diabetic rats by hyperglycemia (Abdel-Halim et al.
2020). It was presumed that malondialdhyde (MDA), a secondary product of lipid peroxidation, altered the protein pattern due to the presence of the aldehyde groups, which act as an anchor between sugar and protein moieties, thereby enhancing the formation of the glycated proteins (Ito et al.
2019). Furthermore, these changes might be attributable to the reaction of the most abundant brain proteins with the ROS, which consequently leads to various chemical changes like fragmentation, oxidation, aggregation and cross-linking of protein molecules (Hawkins et al.
2009). Also, the glycation process reduced the efficiency of the chaperone in exhibiting its biological role by causing protein folding (Adams et al.
2021). The physiological changes in the lipid moiety of native protein pattern in the brains of diabetic rats might refer to overproduction of the ROS that attack the lipid portion, leading to oxidative modifications in the lipid moiety of proteins (El-Sayed et al.
2018). The protein binds naturally to lipoproteins in the brain tissue. Therefore, changing the lipid moiety of the native protein pattern might result in altering the protein pattern in that tissue (Satoh
2005). The calcium moiety of the native protein pattern that is responsible for protecting the tissue and detoxification against toxic agents is altered in the brains of diabetic rats due to the abnormal mineralization in that tissue (Abulyazid et al.
2017). Also, the abnormalities that occurred qualitatively and quantitatively in this protein pattern might be related to the role of the generated ROS in converting an active hydrogen atom from these biomolecules (Abd Elhalim et al.
2017; Aboulthana et al.
2020). The changes in the electrophoretic CAT and POX patterns in the brains of diabetic rats might be attributed to degeneration of the protein contents (Ramanathan et al.
1999), glycation of these enzymes that inhibits their activities (Al-Enazi
2014), and/or due to uncontrolled production of the ROS that affect the protein portion of these enzymes directly and consequently change the physico-chemical properties of the endogenetic CAT and POX enzymes (De Freitas et al.
2014). The brain is rich in ESTs enzymes due to their effective role in the neurotransmission process, where they catalyze the breakdown of acetylcholine liberated during stimulation of the nervous system (Srividhya et al.
2012). Moreover, they have the ability to catalyze the hydrolysis of ester bonds in the neutral lipids introduced into cells as lipid deposits and components of lipoproteins and break them down into the corresponding carboxylic acids (Benjamin et al.
2015). Electrophoresis is the most suitable technique for identifying their molecular forms due to their hydrodynamic properties in addition to the presence of active thiol groups (Abulyazid et al.
2017). In the brains of diabetic rats, the alterations and characteristic changes in the electrophoretic α- and β-EST isoenzyme patterns might be attributable to glycosylation of the EST types that occurred abnormally, leading to protein degradation and hence ESTs instability (Aboulthana et al.
2018). Seif et al. (
2017) proposed that the abnormalities in the EST pattern might be attributed to the effect of ROS on the integrity of the protein molecule due to sulfhydral-mediated cross-linking of the labile amino acids, and changing the fractional activity of different isoenzymes seemed to be correlated with the changes in rate of protein expression secondary to DNA damage induced by oxidative stress and overproduction of ROS. No changes occurred in the electrophoretic in α- and β-EST isoenzyme patterns if there were no alterations in the protein expression (Aboulthana et al.
2016; El-Sayed et al.
2018). It has been shown that treatment with
T. chebula extract ameliorated the physiological abnormalities in all electrophoretic protein (native protein and lipid moiety of native protein) and isoenzyme (CAT, POX, α-Amy, α-EST and β-EST) patterns induced in the brains of diabetic rats due to the presence of phyto-constituents that have the ability to scavenge ROS and could protect these biologically active macromolecules from oxidation (Zhang et al.
2015). Furthermore, the number and location of the hydroxyl groups linked to the phenolic compounds, in addition to the concentration of the phenols, are responsible for stimulating the antioxidant defense against the reactive species targeting these biomacromolecules (Abdel-Halim et al.
2020). In addition, the electrophoretic protein and isoenzymes patterns were restored to their normal state after administering plant extract due to the role of the phyto-constituents that have insulin-like action and exhibit anti-glycating activity through other mechanisms irrespective of glycation inhibition (Akhand et al.
2013).
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