Results from this study indicate that acute hyperglycemia (plasma glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/l) in diabetic patients without any CVD and with preserved LVEF have significant negative effects on systolic LV function primarily by reducing GLS, peak systolic longitudinal (at Endo, Mid and Epi layers) and circumferential strain (at all three layers in basal level). Moreover, observed changes in systolic LV functions did not improve short-term after euglycemia was achieved (after 72 h) and remain unchanged even after longer period (three months) of good glycemic control.
LV diastolic dysfunction in diabetic patients
Previous investigations have been suggested that in patients with diabetes cardiac dysfunction (such as LV diastolic dysfunction, but also LV systolic dysfunction), defined as separate entity “diabetic cardiomyopathy”, could be detected very early in the clinical course of diabetes, independent of other cardiac risk factors (coronary artery diseases or hypertension) which could progress to heart failure [
19,
20]. In that context, echocardiographic studies confirm early diastolic dysfunction in asymptomatic T2D patients [
21] which correlate with the level of HbA1c and that a 1% increase in HbA1c was associated with 8% increase of the heart failure risk, independent of other CV risk factors [
22]. On the other hands, studies in children and adolescents with T1D found diastolic dysfunction despite intensive insulin treatment and good metabolic control [
23‐
25] demonstrating the existence of high risk for cardiac dysfunction in those patients, independent of the HbA1c level. Similarly, 4 month of strict glucose control in T2D patients, insulin based, does not improve the parameters of diastolic dysfunction in T2D [
26]. Moreover, important echocardiographic changes in diastolic function were observed even in patients with prediabetes [
27] suggesting that metabolic milieu in T2D, not only chronic hyperglycemia, could influence the cardiac diastolic function. We found in our study that both groups of diabetic patients, with poor and good metabolic control (both groups A and B), have similar changes in E velocity and E/A ratio implying the presence of diastolic dysfunction (regardless of HbA1c level) in comparison to healthy controls. Interestingly, according to our results, acute hyperglycemia does not additionally impair observed LV diastolic dysfunction in these groups of diabetic patients, except the identified changes in transmitral DT which is slightly, but not significantly increase compared to controls. After euglycemia was achieved, DT significantly decline implying that changes in LV diastolic filling patterns might be one of the consequences of acute hyperglycemia in diabetes.
Layer-specific LV systolic dysfunction in diabetic patients
Strain analysis derived from 2D-STE enables detection of subclinical myocardial systolic dysfunction beyond conventional LV echocardiographic assessment in all three myocardial layers. Studies on layer-specific LV multidirectional strain reported impairments in both longitudinal and circumferential strains in asymptomatic T2D patients which correlated with diabetes duration [
28] or overweight [
29,
30], while others found longitudinal systolic dysfunction and impairment associated with subendocardial wall thickening, but in poorly controlled asymptomatic and normotensive T2D patients [
31]. In addition, STE-derived layer-specific cardiac dysfunctions correlate with the markers of histological remodeling (hypertrophy and fibrosis) and with progression of untreated diabetes in animal models [
32,
33]. Using more accurate and sensitive technique, contrast-enhanced cardiovascular magnetic resonance, layer-specific subclinical systolic dysfunction was detected in uncomplicated T2D patients which was associated with impaired coronary microvascular perfusion [
34]. Also, it was shown in asymptomatic T2D patients with good glycemic control presence of impairment of LV longitudinal strain but preserved circumferential and radial strain [
35], as well as changes in GLS which could be important prognostic factor for the future CV event [
36,
37]. In contrast, in 390 patients with chronic ischemic cardiomyopathy (25% with diabetes) endocardial circumferential strain detected by 2D-STE appears to be a better predictor of future cardiac events than total myocardial scar assessed by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging [
38]. Very recently, detail analysis of LV mechanics in asymptomatic, hypertensive diabetic patients revealed lower longitudinal strain in Endo layer and lower circumferential strain in Endo and Mid layer compared to healthy controls, which also correlated significantly with HbA1c levels [
39]. However, in the study of T2D patients, stratified according to the overall metabolic risk factors, patients with well-control risk factors (including near-normal level of HbA1c), similar to our group B, had only LV diastolic impairment, but there was no evidence of structural or systolic changes of the LV function detected by strain analysis [
40].
Effect of acute hyperglycemia on layer-specific LV strain in diabetic patients
In our group of asymptomatic, normotensive diabetic patients with strict metabolic control (mean HbA1c 6.1 ± 1.0%; Group B) we did not find any statistically significant differences in GLS, peak longitudinal or circumferential strain in comparison to healthy controls (Table
4, Fig.
3). In contrast, in diabetic patients with really poor metabolic control and acute hyperglycemia (Group A, mean HbA1c 11.5 ± 0.3% and glycaemia 22.5 ± 1.1 mmol/l) we found significantly lower GLS, peak longitudinal strain in Endo, Mid and Epi layer, peak circumferential strain in all three layers at basal LV level and in Epi layer in mid-cavity LV level, compared to healthy controls and diabetic patients with good glycemic control (Table
4, Fig.
3). Thus, these results suggest that acute hyperglycemia in asymptomatic diabetic patients have negative impact dominantly on LV systolic function at all three layers (longitudinal and circumferential strain).
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study investigating the effect of acute hyperglycemia on LV diastolic and systolic function using 2D-STE in diabetic patients without CVD or hypertension. Our results shown that acute hyperglycemia in asymptomatic diabetic patients induces significant LV systolic changes in multilayer myocardial strain, particularly in GLS, peak longitudinal and circumferential strain which remain unchanged after short-term (after 72 h) and long-term (after 3 months) euglycemia was achieved.
Assessment of the effects of acute hyperglycemia on the LV contractile function in diabetic patients has only been previously the subject of a few research papers. In one study, Nielsen R et al. [
41] unexpectedly revealed that short-term hyperglycemia (9–12 h) induced by insulin discontinuation, increased LV contractile function (detected as strain rate) in relatively small number (20) of T2D patients with or without heart failure. This result was contrary to previously findings that hyperglycemia is considered harmful in patients with heart failure, particularly when heart failure coexists with diabetes [
42]. However, in this mentioned study [
41], after insulin discontinuation the level of blood glucose rise till mean 9.9 ± 2.1 mmol/l in diabetic patients without heart failure, while in our group of asymptomatic diabetic patients hyperglycemia was significantly higher and we analyzed not only global strain (like in Nielsen study) [
41], but all three LV myocardial layers which could explain different results.
Some of the previously conducted studies have shown that hyperglycemia following a glucose infusion in diabetic patients with normal LVEF, had no effect on the global LV function [
43] detected by standard echocardiography, while we used more sophisticated method (strain analysis) for detection of LV systolic function. Studies in animal models indicated that acute hyperglycemia could suppress LV diastolic function and influences mitochondrial energy signaling [
44], or induces changes in polyol metabolic pathway with consequently increase in oxidative stress leading to myocardial contractile dysfunction [
45]. Compelling evidence is accumulating which suggests a role of oxidative stress as a pathogenic factor underlying the negative effect of acute hyperglycemia on cardiovascular system [
9] which could partly explain our results.
Finally, according to our result, the observed changes in LV systolic function during acute hyperglycemia are not reversible neither after short-term (72 h) nor after longer (3 months) period of good glycemic control, although some studies have shown that amelioration in glycemic control over a 1 year period led to improvements in LV systolic function [
46]. Several studies suggest the concept that negative early effect of hyperglycemia on cells in diabetes is remembered, the phenomenon named “metabolic memory”, primarily based on mitochondrial damages, overproduction of reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress [
47]. Considering that phenomenon, it could be possible that the risk of hyperglycemia-related vascular complications in diabetes persist even when hyperglycemia is normalized, as previously shown in long-term (several years) trials [
48,
49]. However, in our study, the follow-up period with good glycemic control was only three months which possibly would not be long enough to see improvement in the observed LV systolic dysfunction.