Introduction
Prostate cancer is the most prevalent non-skin cancer to affect men and it is the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths in Western males[
1,
2]. The majority of the patients with advanced prostate cancer will eventually develop bone metastases[
3]. Prostate cancer cells that metastasize to bone have the capacity to produce osteolytic lesions which are due to activation of osteoclasts[
4]. Likewise, bone loss is increasingly recognized as a common occurrence in men diagnosed with prostate cancer receiving androgen deprivation therapy (ADT). The receptor activator of nuclear factor kB ligand (RANKL) is an essential cytokine required for the formation and activation of osteoclasts[
5‐
7]. The involvement of RANKL in the progression of prostate tumor growth within bone and the subsequent bone loss has been recently established in animal models of cancer metastasis[
8‐
13].
Runx2, a transcription factor that plays a key regulatory role in osteoblast differentiation, is also highly expressed in bone metastatic breast and prostate cancer cells[
14‐
16]. RUNX2 increases the oncogenic potential through regulation of genes (e.g. MMP2, MMP9, and MMP13) involved in metastasis and invasion of prostate and breast cancer cells[
17‐
19]. RUNX2 expression in cancer cells facilitates the interaction between tumor cells and the bone microenvironment that lead to osteolytic disease[
15,
20]. For instance, in vivo blockade of the Runx2-Indian hedgehog pathway in MDA-MB-231 cells by targeting Runx2 with short hairpin RNA prevented osteolytic disease[
21]. Furthermore, the presence of putative binding sites for RUNX2 in the promoter region of RANKL[
22] and a striking decrease in the number of osteoclasts in RUNX2- (Cbfa1-) deficient mice[
22] suggest that RUNX2 is potentially involved in RANKL expression.
Smads, a family of proteins involved in the translocation of signals from receptors to the nucleus have been shown to physically interact with RUNX2[
23]. Interaction between these proteins results in the formation of transcriptionally active complexes which hold the potential to regulate various developmental and biological processes[
24,
25]. In fact, cooperation between Smads and RUNX2 induces osteoblast specific gene expression in mesenchymal stem cells to promote osteoblast differentiation[
24,
26,
27]. The role of RUNX2 and Smads has been extensively studied in a variety of cell systems. However, the combined roles of these proteins and their signaling mechanisms on RANKL expression in bone metastatic prostate cancer cells have been largely unexplored.
Integrin αvβ3 and CD44 signaling have been shown to increase the metastatic potential of cancer cells[
28‐
30]. Integrin αvβ3 expression in tumor cells accelerates the development of osteolytic lesions[
31]. Integrin αvβ3 signaling has been implicated in the expression of RANKL and osteoclastogenesis by breast cancer in the bone microenvironment[
32]. CD44 signaling increases the metastatic potential of prostate cancer cells[
33,
34]. Altered levels of CD44 have been seen in many epithelial neoplasms and expression of CD44 has been shown to carry prognostic implications[
35,
36]. RUNX2 expression is regulated by CD44 signaling[
37]. A neutralizing antibody to CD44s significantly decreased the expression of Runx2 mRNA in hypertrophic chondrocytes[
37]. CD44 signaling is a determinant of inflammatory bone loss through expression of RANKL[
38,
39]. PC3 and LNCaP cell lines have been used by many researchers to document the role of CD44 in the metastatic process[
40‐
43]. We have previously demonstrated that osteopontin regulates the expression and secretion of RANKL in PC3 cells[
28]. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the expression of RANKL are not fully understood. The role of multiple receptor signaling pathways (for e.g. CD44 and integrin αvβ3) converge on the transcriptional factor(s) to regulate RANKL expression needs further elucidation.
Therefore, our aim is to further elucidate the mechanisms by which RANKL expression is regulated by testing the hypothesis that integrin αvβ3 and CD44 signaling plays a key role in mediating the expression of RANKL. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying RANKL expression may provide a valuable insight into the process of osteoclast differentiation and the resultant bone resorptive activities within the skeletal microenvironment. In the present study, the cooperative role of RUNX2 and Smad5 in the expression of RANKL was studied in PC3 cells. Here, we provide compelling evidence that a) CD44 signaling regulates the phosphorylation of RUNX2; b) CD44 knockdown reduced RUNX2 phosphorylation, but not Smad 5 phosphorylation; c) knockdown of Smad 5 levels or suppression of phosphorylation of Smad 5 by an inhibitor to integrin αv reduced nuclear localization of RUNX2, and d) inhibition of phosphorylation of either RUNX2 or Smad 5 reduces the expression of RANKL and osteoclast differentiation.
Discussion
Expression of CD44 (standard or variant isoforms) has been considered a prognostic marker for the progression of prostate cancer. The mechanism by which CD44 regulates the progression of prostate cancer is largely unknown. The present study was performed to evaluate the role of CD44 in prostate cancer-induced bone metastasis. We screened three cell lines (PC3, DU145, and LNCaP) for the expression of CD44. Normal prostatic epithelial (HPR-1) and benign prostatic hyperplasic cells (BPH) were used as controls. PC3 and DU145 cells were established from the bone and brain metastatic lesions of a prostate cancer patient, respectively. Our studies are in agreement with the majority of earlier studies[
53,
54] in the expression of CD44 in androgen independent PC3 and DU145 cells, but not in androgen dependent LNCaP cells, which is established from a lymph node metastasis. Stable expression of androgen receptor in PC3 cells reduces CD44 expression to a significant level (data not shown).
The present study was undertaken to determine the possible mechanisms involved in the formation of osteolytic lesions associated with metastasis of prostate cancer cells to bone and the significance of CD44 and αvβ3 signaling. Previous studies in CD44 knockout mice link CD44 receptor with RANKL expression[
47]. Our results in PC3 cells show that RANKL expression is in part mediated by CD44 signaling through RUNX2. As a result of CD44 expression, we have found expression of RANKL and MMP9 through RUNX2-dependent signaling in PC3 cells. RUNX2 SiRNA reduces MMP9 expression but not MMP2 at mRNA level. On the other hand, androgen-dependent LNCaP cells demonstrated expression and secretion of MMP2 as a major metalloproteases (Additional file
1: Figure S1). MMP2 expression may occur independent of RUNX2 and CD44 signaling in LNCaP cells. Consistent with our studies, others have shown negligible Runx2 in normal prostate epithelial and non-metastatic LNCaP cells. High Runx2 levels are associated with development of large tumors, increased expression of metastasis-related genes (MMP9, MMP13, VEGF, osteopontin) and secreted bone-resorbing factors (PTHrP, IL8) promoting osteolytic disease. Moreover, it was identified in co-culture studies that PC3 cells promote osteoclastogenesis and RUNX2 has a role in it[
18]. This suggests a role for RUNX2 in the expression of RANKL.
RUNX proteins are expressed in prostate tissue and prostate cancer cells[
18,
55,
56]. Breast and prostate cancers over expressing RUNX2 metastasized predominantly to bone[
16,
20]. We have shown a direct relationship of CD44 expression with RUNX2 activation in androgen-independent PC3 cells. Knockdown of CD44 reduced the expression of RUNX2 at mRNA and protein levels and hence reduced RUNX2-mediated signaling. Our studies demonstrate the possible role of CD44 signaling in RUNX2-mediated expression of RANKL. One possible explanation for RUNX2-regulated RANKL expression in PC3 cells may be associated with the lack of androgen receptor signaling. Androgen receptor was shown to bind RUNX2 and abrogates its binding to DNA and possibly to other nuclear DNAs[
14]. It appears that CD44 expression in androgen-independent cells (e.g. PC3 cells) counteracts androgen receptor effects in terms of activation of RUNX2- mediated events. Therefore, knockdown of CD44 signaling in PC3 cells has the potential to reduce RUNX2 mediated signaling.
Hyaluronan (HA), the major non-protein glycosaminoglycan component of the extracellular matrix in mammalian bone marrow, functions in part through its receptor, CD44, to stimulate a series of intracellular signaling events that lead to RANKL expression[
47]. We have shown previously that osteopontin (OPN) is secreted by PC3 cells. Over-expression of OPN in PC3 cells increases the secretion of RANKL through αvβ3 signaling[
28]. Our current mechanistic evaluation studies in PC3 cells suggest a role for CD44 signaling in the phosphorylation of a RUNX2 and integrin αvβ3 signaling in the phosphorylation of Smad-5 independent of CD44 signaling. However, further studies are required to understand the precise contribution of downstream kinase(s) to the regulation of RUNX2 phosphorylation.
Runx2 nuclear localization was found to be up-regulated in prostate cancer and was suggested that this could be used as a predictor of metastasis in prostate cancer[
57]. Several studies have shown that RUNX2 regulates localization of activated Smads in the subnuclear loci[
24,
58,
59]. RUNX2 cooperates with Smads to induce differentiation of osteoblasts[
26,
60] and expression of collagenase in breast cancer cells[
61]. RUNX2 forms complexes with Smad proteins as a requirement for mediating BMP/TGF β responsiveness in tumor cells. These effects contribute to tumor growth in bone and the accompanying bone loss in metastatic breast cancer cells[
20]. Formation of the Runx2/Smad transcriptional complex is dependent on the phosphorylation state of these proteins[
58]. Likewise, we detected predominant localization of phosphorylated RUNX2 and Smad 5 in the nuclei of lysates made from PC3 cells, prostatic adenocarcinoma and in tissue microarray sections containing primary prostatic tumor (grade 2–4).
Distinct relationship has been shown to exist between each Smad and RUNX2,[
26,
27,
58,
62,
63]. Not only Smad 5 but also Smads 2 and 3 were shown to physically interact with RUNX2 in P19 embryonic carcinoma cells[
23]. RUNX2/Smad 3 interaction stimulated collagen 3 expression in breast cancer cells[
61]. Runx2/Smad3 complex negatively regulated endogenous and TGF-beta-induced connective tissue growth factor gene expression in vascular smooth muscle cells[
64]. We have found that PC3 cells express Smad −2, -3 and −5 (Additional file
2: Figure S2). Smad 5 interaction was more with RUNX2 and this interaction regulates the expression of RANKL in prostate cancer cells.
RUNX2/Smad complex was shown to regulate the expression of RANKL in osteoblasts[
24]. Although various studies have addressed the role of RUNX2 and Smad(s) in the regulation of expression of RANKL, the mechanisms underlying this process have remained largely unknown. Also the role of Smad5 in the expression of RANKL needs further elucidation. The data presented here show that Smad 5 and RUNX2 are co-immunoprecipitated in the nuclear fraction. RUNX2/Smad 5 complex regulates the expression of RANKL in PC3 cells. Interaction of RUNX2 with RANKL promoter was observed with CHIP assay. Binding of RUNX2 to the ctgg
aaccact ggagt motif site on the RANKL is shown by CHIP assay. Although knockdown of RUNX2 or inhibition of phosphorylation of Smad-5 by an inhibitor to αv reduces the levels of RANKL, direct binding of Smad 5 with RANKL promoter was not observed. Future studies should delineate the relevant interactions between these proteins.
Interestingly, we have also observed reduced levels of RUNX2 and RANKL expression in cells treated with an inhibitor to αv or SiRNA to Smad5. These results indicate that RUNX2 is a major target gene of CD44 and Smad 5 signaling pathway. This is consistence with observations shown by others that Smad 5 is an upstream regulator of RUNX2[
26,
51,
60]. Over expression of Smad 5 increases RUNX2 levels in human MG63 osteosarcoma cells[
51]. RUNX2 expression is transiently up regulated by TGF-β and BMP-2 activated Smads in mesenchymal precursor cell differentiation[
26,
60]. Smad 2 and 3 are expressed in PC3 cells; however, these proteins could not compensate the function of Smad 5. Therefore, it is possible that, a) Smad 5 which induces RUNX2 expression might also be translocated to subnuclear loci by RUNX2; b) Smad 2 or 3 interaction with RUNX2 may not occur for RANKL expression in response to integrin αvβ3 signaling. BMP2 signaling contributes to the high level of Runx2-Smad interaction which activates RANKL in osteoblasts. CD44/Smad signaling pathway has been shown to have a regulatory role in osteoblast differentiation in the absence of BMPs[
65]. The underlying molecular mechanism by which αvβ3-activated Smad 5 regulates RUNX2 expression needs further elucidation. Taken together, bone metastatic prostate cancer cells (PC3) are osteomimetic and are expressing genes and proteins as observed in osteoblasts. However, the expression of osteoblastic specific genes in metastatic cancer cells does not necessarily involve the same pathway as observed in osteoblasts.
Materials and methods
Materials
Antibodies to RANKL, RUNX2, Histone and GAPDH as well as HRP-conjugated secondary antibodies (rabbit, goat and mice) were purchased from Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc. (Santa Cruz, CA). Antibodies to CD44 and sampler kit containing antibodies to Smads (phospho (P) -Smad1/5, P-Smad2, Smad2, Smad4, Smad 5 and Smad6) were purchased from Cell Signaling Technologies (Danvers, MA). Macrophage colony-stimulating factor-1 (MCSF-1) was purchased from R&D Systems (Minneapolis, MN). Cy2- and Cy3-conjugated secondary antibodies were purchased from Jackson Immunoresearch Laboratory, Inc. (West Grove, PA). An inhibitor to PKC (Gö6976) was purchased from Calbiochem (La Jolla, CA). A αv inhibitor (Cyclic RGD peptide) was purchased from Peptides International (Louisville, Kentucky). Complete mini protease inhibitor tablet was purchased from Roche Applied Science (Indianapolis, IN). Protein estimation reagent kit, molecular weight standards for proteins, and polyacrylamide solutions were purchased from Bio-Rad (Hercules, CA). Polyvinyldifluoride (PVDF) membrane for immunoblotting analysis and Amicon centrifugal concentrator devices for concentrating the protein in the conditioned media were obtained from Millipore Corp. (Bedford, MA). ECL reagent was purchased from Pierce (Rockford, IL). Vector Stain Elite and avidin-biotin complex (ABC) kit for immunohistochemistry were bought from Vector Laboratories (Burlingame, CA). Human prostate tumor and normal tissue lysates (total tissue, membrane and nuclear lysates) were purchased from Abcam (Cambridge, MA). TMAs containing 12 (24 cores) 24 (48 cores) and 40 (96 cores) cases were bought from US Biomax, Inc.
Generation of PC3 cells knockdown of CD44
Four different silencing and one control scramble ShRNA constructs for the CD44 cDNA sequences (Genbank -NM_000610.3) were made using Shanghai Gene Pharm Corporation services (Shanghai, China). Target sequences for each of the silencing and scrambled ShRNA constructs are as follows:
1)
5′GCGCAGATCGATTTGAATATA-3′ (shCD44-492)
2)
5′GCTCCACCTGAAGAAG ATTGT-3′ (shCD44-801)
3)
5′-GCTTC ACCTACTGCAAATCC-3′ (shCD44-1874)
4)
5′-GGA AGAAGATAAAGACCATCC-3′ (shCD44-1994)
5)
Scrambled ShRNA 5′-GCATGTAGCGTTCGTAAATAA-3′ (shCD44-scramble). Constructs were generated in pGPU6/GFP/Neo-vector. PC3 cells were transfected with these constructs and vector DNA using lipofectamine 2000 according to the manufacturer’s instructions (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). Cells were cultured in Roswell Park Memorial Institute-1640 (RPMI 1640) media containing 10% FBS. After 24 h transfection, the cells were selected using G418 sulfate in the same medium. G418 sulfate resistant cells were analyzed for CD44 levels by immunoblotting with an antibody to CD44. The constructs which gave the best silencing effect of CD44 in PC3 cells were used for the isolation of individual clones. A significant decrease in the levels of CD44 was observed with shCD44-492 and −801 constructs. Individual clones (about 15–25) were isolated for each construct and cultured in complete medium containing G418 sulfate (200 μg/ml). About two to three clones from each construct (492 and 801) demonstrated a considerable decrease in the levels of CD44. Individual clones from each construct that exhibited highest levels of reduction in endogenous CD44 levels were used for the experiments described here. These cells were designated as PC3/Si (CD44).
Cell culture
Prostate cancer cells (PC3, PC3 derived cell lines, LNCaP and DU145) and benign prostatic hyperplasic cells (BPH-1) were cultured in RPMI 1640 medium containing 5% or 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS)[
28,
66]. HPR-1 cells were cultured in keratinocyte medium supplemented with epidermal growth factor (EGF) (2.5 mg/500 ml) and bovine pituitary extracts (25 mg/500 ml) (Gibco BRL, Life Technologies, Bethesda, MD) as described previously[
67]. Media were supplemented with penicillin and streptomycin (1%) and the cells were maintained at 37°C in a humidified incubator with 5% CO
2.
Quantification of RANKL in the conditioned medium
Cells of interest were grown to 80-90% confluence in RPMI-1640 medium containing 10% FBS. Cultures were then switched to serum-free RPMI-1640 medium for 72 h. The harvested CM was concentrated with Amicon centrifugal filter devices (Millipore Corporation, Bedford, MA). Protein concentrations were measured using the Bio-Rad protein assay reagent kit. Quantification of the secreted RANKL in the conditioned media was done by comparative analysis with different concentrations of either BSA or purified GST-RANKL using 12% polyacrylamide gel containing SDS (SDS-PAGE). Coomassie staining of the SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting with a RANKL antibody were performed to determine the concentration of RANKL in the medium[
28].
Preparation of osteoclast precursors
Mouse osteoclasts were generated in vitro using mouse bone marrow cells as described previously[
68]. Cells isolated from five mice were cultured into 100-mm dishes with 20 ml of α-MEM medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (α-10). After culturing for 24 h, non-adhered cells were layered on histopaque-1077 (Sigma) and centrifuged at 300 × g for 15 min at room temperature. The cell layer between the histopaque and the media was removed and washed with α–10 medium at 2000 rpm for 7 min at room temperature. Cells were resuspended in α-10 media and cultured with the appropriate concentrations of M-CSF-1 (10 ng/ml) and RANKL (55–75 ng/ml). In order to determine the effect of secreted RANKL on osteoclast differentiation, mouse bone marrow cells were treated in the same way with M-CSF-1 but with conditioned medium (CM; 50-100 μg protein). CM collected from PC3, PC3-derived cell lines, DU145, LNCaP, BPH, and HPR-1 were used for osteoclast differentiation. After 3 days in culture, cultures were added with fresh α–10 medium containing M-CSF1 and respective CM. Multinucleated osteoclasts were observed from day 4 onwards. About 75-80% TRAP-positive multinucleated giant osteoclasts were observed from day 5 onwards[
69].
Treatment of PC3 cells with SiRNA to Smad 5 and inhibitors and preparation of total cellular lysates
PC3 cells cultured in RPMI-1640 media containing 10% FBS at 37°C were treated with PKC inhibitor (Go6976; 100nM) or integrin αv inhibitor (cyclic RGD; 100nM) for 16 h. SiRNA and non-targeting SiRNA control nucleotides for Smad 5 were purchased from Santa Cruz biotechnology, Inc. (Catalog No. sc-38378). Transfection was performed with lipofectamine as described previously[
70]. Scrambled and SiRNA nucleotides were used to a final concentration of 50 nM for 48 and 72 h. Following various treatments, cells were washed three times with cold PBS and added with cold RIPA lysis buffer (10 mM Tris–HCl, pH 7.2, 150 mM NaCl, 1% deoxycholate, 1% Triton X-100, and 0.1% SDS)[
71]. Lysis buffer was supplemented with EDTA- free complete mini protease inhibitor cocktail (1 tablet per 10 ml lysis buffer) immediately before use. After incubating on ice for 10 min, lysates were centrifuged for 5 min at 6,000 rpm at 4°C. The supernatants were saved and protein concentrations were measured using the Bio-Rad protein assay reagent kit. Protein lysates were subjected to SDS-PAGE (8 or 12% gels) and Western blot analysis as described previously[
71].
Preparation of cytoplasmic and nuclear protein fractions
Cells were lysed in a lysis buffer containing 10 mM Tris pH 7.9, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 10 mM KCl, 0.5 mM EGTA and protease inhibitor (1 tablet/10 ml buffer). Lysate was centrifuged at 500 × g to separate the nuclear pellet from the supernatant. The supernatant was considered as a cytosolic fraction. The nuclear pellet was resuspended by pipetting up and down with a P200 pipette tip in a buffer containing 20 mM Tris pH 7.5, 25% glycerol, 1.5 mM MgCl
2, 400 mM NaCl and 0.5 mM EGTA. The suspension was centrifuged at 20,000 × g for 15 min at 4°C and the supernatant was used as nuclear fraction. Equal concentration of lysate proteins were used for Western blot analysis[
71].
Immunostaining
PC3 cells were cultured on cover slips in a 30 mm dish for overnight at 37
0C prior to staining. Cells were washed three times with PBS and fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde–PBS for 20 min. After washing three times with PBS, cells were permeablized with 0.1% Triton X–PBS for 15 min. Subsequently, cells were blocked and immunostained with antibodies (1:100 dilution) of interest as described previously[
70]. Cells were then washed and counterstained with respective isotype specific IgG conjugated with CY2 and CY3 fluorophore for 2-3 h at 4
0C. The cells were washed and mounted on a slide in a mounting solution (Vector Laboratories, Inc.). The immunostained cells were viewed and photographed on a Bio-Rad confocal laser-scanning microscope. Images were stored in TIF image format and processed by the Adobe Photoshop software program (Adobe Systems, Inc., Mountain View, CA).
RNA extraction and quantitative real-time PCR with RUNX2
Total RNA from different cell lines was isolated with TRIzol kit protocol with the DNA digest (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). Reverse transcription reaction was performed in a 20 μl-reaction volume with 1 μg of total RNA by following the instructions provided by the manufacturer (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). The cDNA was stored at -20
0C until further use. For real time PCR, Runx2 primers (forward-5
′CGGCCCTCCCTGAACTCT3
′; reverse- 5
′TGCCTGCCTGGGGTCTGTA3
′) were used[
55]. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) (forward-5
′ TGCA CCACCAACTGCTTAG3
′ and reverse-5
′GATGCAGGGATGATGTTC3
′) was used for normalization. Each reaction was performed in duplicates or triplicates in 25 μl volume in 96-well plates with a SYBR green reaction mix (Applied Biosystems Group) in an ABI 7000HT thermocycler (2 min at 50°C, 10 min at 95°C and 40 cycles of 15 s at 94°C and 1 min at 60°C) with 600-900nM primers as described previously[
72]. The expression was calculated relative to that of control cells and normalized for GAPDH measured under the same conditions (Applied Biosystems/Roche, Branchburg, NJ), using the 2–ΔΔCT method[
73].
Immunohistochemistry
Prostatic adenocarcinoma tissue microarray (TMA) sections containing 6 cases of prostate adenocarcinoma with 6 adjacent normal prostate tissues in duplicate cores per case
were purchased from the US Biomax, Inc ( Rockville, MD)
. TMA sections were processed, stained, and analyzed essentially as described previously[
74]
. Antigen retrieval was done using a buffer containing 10 mM Tris base pH 9, 1 mM EDTA and 0.05%Tween 20 in a microwave for 20 min. After incubation with 3% hydrogen peroxide in PBS for 30 min., sections were washed with PBS and then blocked either in 2.5% BSA or horse serum in PBS for 1 h at RT. Sections were then incubated with the primary antibodies diluted in blocking solution overnight at 4°C. After washing with PBS, slides were incubated with biotinylated secondary antibodies (1:400 dilutions) for 1 h, followed by the avidin-biotin complex (ABC) method using ABC kit (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA) for 30 min. Slides were washed and developed in 3,3-diaminobenzidine (DAB) for 2–3 min. Immunostained sections were counterstained with hematoxylin, dehydrated and mounted with Permount (Fisher Scientific). Immunostained sections were scanned using an Aperio Scanscope® CS instrument (Aperio scanscope CS system, Vista, CA). Relative distribution of interested proteins in immunostained TMA sections were semi-quantitatively analyzed by two other investigators as well.
Reverse transcription- polymerase chain reaction ( RT-PCR) analysis
RT-PCR was done as described previously[
70].
Total RNA was isolated and cDNAs were synthesized using 2 μg of total RNA. RT-PCR was done with the following primers: RUNX2 (406-bp product) - forward, 5
′ ATTTAGGGCGCATTCCTCATC-3
′ and reverse, 5
′-TGTAATC TGACTCTGTCCTTGTGGAT-3
′. GAPDH level was used for normalization. Samples were electrophoresed on an agarose gel and stained with ethidium bromide.
Chromatin immunoprecipitation assay (ChIP) was performed according to the manufacturer’s guidelines (Millipore, Cat#-17-295) and as described previously[
75]. Briefly, PC3 cells were fixed by adding formaldehyde (Sigma, St. Louis, MO) to the medium to a final concentration of 1%. After 15 min the cells were washed, resuspended in CHIP-lysis buffer (Millipore) and sonicated. Immunoprecipitation was carried out at 4
0C overnight using anti-RUNX2 (2 μg; rabbit polyclonal antibody) or non-immune rabbit IgG as a control. Immune complexes were washed, eluted and protein-DNA cross linking was reversed according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Immunoprecipitated DNA was quantified by RT-PCR using primer pairs (forward-5
′ CTGCGTCTTCTTTAACCCATCT3
′; reverse- 5
′CCCTCCCTCTCTCTCAAT CTCT3
′) in the RANKL promoter with expected product size 153 bp.
Statistical analysis
All experiments were performed in triplicates and repeated three to four times and values presented as mean ± SEM. A value of p <0.05 was considered significant. Statistical significance was determined by analysis of variance (ANOVA) with the Bonferonni corrections (Instat for IBM; Graph pad software; San Diego, CA).
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors’ contributions
AG carried out major experiments including Western blotting with human normal and tumor tissue lysates, immunohistochemistry on TMA, analyses with conditioned medium (Western blotting and osteoclast differentiation), studies with inhibitors (αv and PKC) and SiRNA (Smad 5). AG also participated in the MS preparation, statistical analysis of the data, discussion and interpretation of results. WC generated CD44 knockdown stable PC3 cell lines. MAC conceived the study, confocal microscopy analysis of immunostained PC3 cells, RUNX2 knockdown experiments and manuscript preparation. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.