Introduction
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most prevalent cancer type and the second major cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide [
1]. Surgical removal of CRCs is the main therapy for patients with CRC, and is frequently combined with other treatment modalities such as neoadjuvant and adjuvant chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and treatment with targeted agents [
2]. These strategies, however, have not significantly improved survival rates in patients with CRC. Identifying new molecular markers and therapeutic targets, and clarifying the mechanisms underlying their effects, may provide greater understanding of the occurrence, development, and therapy of CRC.
Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a new type of transcript encoded by the genome, but mostly not translated into protein [
3]. LncRNAs are involved in a variety of cellular biological processes, including gene regulation and chromatin dynamics [
4]. Aberrant expression and mutation of lncRNAs are widely associated with a variety of disease development and cell functional behaviors, including tumor proliferation [
5], invasion, and metastasis [
6]. LncRNAs are expected to serve as biomarkers for cancer prognosis, diagnosis, and efficacy prediction, and as therapeutic targets [
7,
8]. In the past decade, a variety of lncRNAs have been found to be involved in the occurrence and development of CRC [
9]. For example, lncRNA HIF1 α-As2 upregulates hypoxia inducible-factor 1α (HIF1α) expression through a ceRNA mechanism, promoting interaction of HIF1α with the RMRP promoter to activate the IGF2 signaling pathway and promote CRC progression [
10]. LncRNA GLCC1 stabilizes c-myc by binding to HSP90, which in turn upregulates transcription of lactate dehydrogenase and supports survival and proliferation of CRC cells by enhancing glycolysis [
11]. Although many lncRNAs are closely related to the malignant progression of CRC and have application prospects in tumor screening and detection, while many CRC-related lncRNAs have not yet been identified. Therefore, further functional lncRNAs and their regulatory mechanisms in CRC development still need to be explored.
LINC00955 (Long Intergenic Non-protein Coding RNA 955) is an intergenic lncRNA located on chromosome 4p16.3 with a full length of about 2483 nucleotides. Its biological function has not been reported. The present study was designed to assess the role of LINC00955 in the development of CRC. Evaluation of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) revealed that LINC00955 was downregulated in CRC tissues, and lower levels of LINC00955 were associated with worse survival. Overexpression of LINC00955 significantly inhibited proliferation of CRC cells in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, LINC00955 bound to Sp1 transcription factor (Sp1) protein to modulate the Sp1 protein level post-translationally by regulating the binding of the E3 ubiquitin ligase tripartite motif containing 25 (TRIM25) to Sp1. Downregulation of Sp1 inhibited the cell cycle and malignant proliferation of CRC cells through the DNA methyltransferase 3 beta (DNMT3B)/pleckstrin homology domain-interacting protein (PHIP)/cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2) axis. This study revealed a novel mechanism by which LINC00955 inhibits the development of CRC and provided a theoretical basis for a potential targeted therapy for CRC.
Methods
Plasmids, reagents, and antibodies
Fenghui Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Hunan, China) provided the LINC00955 precursor overexpression plasmid, and MiaoLingBio provided the GFP-Sp1 plasmid (Wuhan, China). PHIP-knockdown plasmids were from Open Biosystem. HA-CDK2, HA-DNMT3B, HA-TRIM25, a set of TRIM25-targeting shRNA plasmids, the PHIP promoter-driven luciferase reporter, the DNMT3B promoter-driven luciferase reporter, and deleted LINC00955 fragments were constructed in the laboratory. Antibodies against Sp1 (9389), HA (3724), FOXO1 (2880), and FOXO3A (12,829) were sourced from CST (Boston, MA, USA). Santa Cruz Biotechnology (Dallas, TX, USA) provided antibodies against cyclin D1 (sc-20044), GFP (sc-9996), CDK2 (sc-6248), CDK4 (sc-260), CDK6 (sc-7961), Sp2 (sc-17814), and Sp3 (sc-28305). Antibodies against β-actin (Ab0011) were purchased from Abways Technology (Shanghai, China). Antibodies against tubulin (Ab7291), KLHL6 (Ab182163), and FOXC1 (Ab5079) were purchased from Abcam (Cambridge, MA, USA). Proteintech (Wuhan, China) sold antibodies against the following: PHIP (20,933–1-AP), TRIM25 (12,573–1-AP), DNMT1 (24,206–1-AP), DNMT3A (20,954–1-AP), and cyclin E2 (11,935–1-AP). Antibodies against DNMT3B (52A1018) were purchased from Novus Biologicals (USA).
Human samples and cell lines
A total of 75 pairs of CRC and adjacent normal human tissues were provided by the First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University. Each specimen was divided into three parts when sampled: one part was confirmed as CRC by pathological examination, the second part was used to extract RNA and synthesize cDNA, and the third part was fixed in formalin, embedded in paraffin, and stored at room temperature. The human CRC cell lines HCT116 (CBP60028 COBIOER, Nanjing, China), HT29 (CBP60011 COBIOER), RKO (CBP60006 COBIOER), SW480 (CCL-228; ATCC, Manassas, VA, USA), CCD 841 CoN (CRL-1790, ATCC), and CCD-18Co (CRL-1459, ATCC) were cultured in 1640 medium (Gibco, 11,875–093), McCoy’s 5A 127 medium or minimum essential medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) at 37 °C in a humidified incubator with 5% CO2.
Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR)
Total RNA was extracted from samples using TRIzol (Invitrogen) and reverse-transcribed using Fast SYBR Green Master Mix kit (4,385,614, Applied Biosystems). The results were normalized to those of β-actin. The following primers were used: human CDK2 (forward, 5′-GGC ATT CCT CTT CCC CTC ATC AA-3′; reverse, 5′-CTC CAA AAG CTC TGG CTA GTC CA-3′); human LINC00955 (forward, 5′-CGT CGC CAA CGC CCC TAG GAC-3′; reverse, 5′-CAC CCG GAA GTC TCA TGT GGA-3′); human PHIP (forward, 5′-ACA GAC TTG AGC GAC TTG TT-3′; reverse, 5′-GGT AGC TAA CAA CCT CCC AT-3′); human DNMT3B (forward, 5′-AGG GAA GAC TCG ATC CTC GTC-3′; reverse, 5′-GTG TGT AGC TTA GCA GAC TGG-3′); human Sp1 (forward, 5′-AGC AGC AGC AAC ACC ACT CTC AC-3′; reverse, 5′-TCA TCA TGT ATT CCA TCA CCA CCA G-3′); and human β-actin (forward, 5′-TGG ATG ATG ATA TCG CCG CG-3′; reverse, 5′-GTG CTC GAT GGG GTA CTT CAG-3′).
Western blotting
Tissues or cells were sonicated, their protein concentrations were measured, and equal aliquots were loaded onto SDS-PAGE gels, which were electrophoresed. Protein samples were transferred to nylon membranes, which were then incubated in 5% non-fat milk for 1 h to avoid non-specific binding. The appropriately diluted primary antibody was applied to the membranes, followed by three washes with TBS, incubation with a tagged secondary antibody for 3 h at 4 °C, and three more washes with TBS. Finally, the membranes were exposed to film. Antibodies against Sp1, HA, FOXO1, FOXO3A, FOXC1, TRIM25, and DNMT1 were diluted 1:1000. Antibodies against cyclin D1, GFP, CDK2, CDK4, CDK6, Sp2, Sp3, cyclin E2, and DNMT3B were diluted 1:500. Antibodies against β-actin, α-tubulin, and DNMT3A were diluted 1:10,000. The anti-KLHL6 antibody was diluted 1:1500. The anti-PHIP antibody was diluted 1:2000.
IHC
Tissue samples were cut and embedded in paraffin, and then baked, dewaxed, and hydrated. Antigen retrieval was performed by dropwise addition of 3% H2O2. After blocking non-specific binding with 5% BSA, the samples were treated with the appropriately diluted primary antibody overnight at 4 °C. The samples were then washed and incubated for 1 h with the appropriate biotinylated secondary antibody, and then SABC (SA1022, Boster Bio Engineering Company, Wuhan, China) was added dropwise. Samples were developed with DAB (59,718, Abcam) and examined by light microscopy. The final hematoxylin staining was terminated with ddH2O. Antibodies against CDK2 (Proteintech, 10,122–1-AP, 1:250), PHIP (Bioworld, BS8775, 1:100), DNMT3B (Proteintech, 26,971–1-AP, 1:250), and Sp1 (Cell Signaling Technology, 9389, 1:2000) were used for IHC.
Experimental animals
Female BALB/C-nu nude mice weighing 15 ± 0.5 g obtained from GemPharmatech (license number: SCXK [SU] 2018–0008; Nanjing, Jiangsu, China) were raised in the SPF facility of Wenzhou Medical University for experimental animals. The Wenzhou Medical University Experimental Animal Ethics Committee approved all animal research. Twelve female BALB/c-nu nude mice were randomly split into two groups of six. Each mouse was subcutaneously injected with 5 × 106 HCT116 (Vector) or HCT116 (LINC00955) cells in 100 μL of media, and the injection was performed slowly and at a constant speed. Three weeks later, the mice were euthanized by injecting excessive pentobarbital sodium. The tumors were dissected out, photographed, and weighed.
Cell cycle analysis
Cells in logarithmic growth phase were trypsinized, resuspended, and added to the wells of 6-well plates. The cells were grown with 0.1% FBS medium for 12 h after adhering to the plates, and subsequently with the matching 10% FBS complete medium for 12 h. The cells were stored in a 4 °C refrigerator for 12–24 h after being digested in EP tubes with 70% pre-cooled alcohol. The cell pellet was obtained by centrifugation at 1000 × g for 5 min, then the cell pellet was washed with precooled PBS, and the cells were stained with 30 μL RNaseA and 120 μL PI staining solution. The cell suspensions were then assayed by flow cytometry.
RNA pull-down assay and mass spectrometry
RNA pull-down kits were used to perform RNA pull-down experiments (Bes5102; BersinBio, China). Secondary structures of the corresponding mass of biotin-labeled target RNA probes and NC probes were formed. Two RNase-free centrifuge tubes each received 40 μL of streptavidin magnetic beads. RNA probes (about 100 μL) were added to form secondary structures with the magnetic beads, tubes were centrifuged and incubated at 25 °C, and the supernatants were discarded. Aliquots containing 2 × 107 cells were washed, with 100 μL of supernatant considered the input group. The probe-magnetic bead complex was mixed with the cell magnetic bead complex and the cell lysate, followed by incubation with rotation for 2 h. The beads were collected and washed for 5 min. The magnetic beads were subsequently mixed with 60 μL of protein elution buffer, and incubated at 37 °C for 2 h. The supernatants were transferred to new centrifuge tubes. A 15 μL aliquot of each protein sample was loaded onto SDS-PAGE gels for western blotting. The gels were stained for 2 h in Coomassie brilliant blue staining solution, washed with ddH2O, and subjected to mass spectrometry.
Methylation-specific PCR
DNA extracted from peripheral blood leukocytes was methylated by the M.SssI (M0226S; New England Biolabs, USA) enzyme to obtain fully methylated DNA. Sodium bisulfite conversion was performed using EZ DNA Methylation-Gold kits (D5005; Zymo Research, USA). Specific primers were used for PCR amplification and nucleic acid electrophoresis as follows: MF: 5′-GGG TGG GGG TTT TAT TGT GTC G-3′; MR: 5′-GAA TCC CTC CGC CGC A-3′; UF: 5′-GGG TGG GGG TTT TAT TGT GTT G-3′; and UR: 5′-AAA TCC CTC CAC CAC A-3′.
RNA-IP assay
HCT116 (LINC00955) cells cultured in a 10 cm dish to 70–80% confluence were lysed using the buffer provided in the RNA Immunoprecipitation Kit (Bes5101; BersinBio, China). Each cell lysate sample was divided into three aliquots, with 0.8 mL used for IP, 0.8 mL for IgG assays, and 0.1 mL as input. IP and IgG samples were supplemented with specific antibodies. Each sample received 20 μL of carefully balanced protein A/G beads. The beads were recovered by centrifugation and then incubated at 55 °C for 1 h with polysome elution buffer. RNA was eluted and reverse-transcribed, and qPCR was performed.
IP
A Myc-Ub IP assay was performed. Briefly, PHIP-knockdown HCT116 (LINC00955) and RKO (LINC00955) cells and TRIM25 knockdown HCT116 (LINC00955) and RKO (LINC00955) cells were grown in 10 cm plates to 70–80% confluence, followed by co-transfection with Myc-Ub and HA-CDK2 or Myc-Ub and GFP-Sp1. Eight hours later, the medium was changed, followed by incubation for another 12 h. MG132 (10 µM) was added to the cells for 8 h. Each protein sample received an anti-Myc antibody before being incubated at 4 °C for 12 h. The samples were mixed with agarose beads (sc2003; Santa Cruz, USA) and incubated for 3 h at 4 °C. The agarose beads were collected and washed 5–6 times. The protein samples were analyzed by western blotting after addition of 60 µL of elution buffer.
Prediction of Sp1 and TRIM25 binding regions within LINC00955
The genomic sequence of human LINC00955 was obtained from the nucleotide database of the National Library of Medicine (sequence ID: NR_040045.1). The secondary structure of LINC00955 was predicted using RNAfold, using the options of minimum free energy and partition function, while avoiding isolated base pairs. The RNA binding domains in the transcription factor Sp1 (entry ID: P08047) and the E3 ubiquitin/ISG15 ligase TRIM25 (entry ID: Q14258) were predicted from their three dimensional structures modeled by AlphaFold. Specifically, folds similar to two structural domains in Sp1 (i.e., amino acids 429–558 and 626–714) and three domains in TRIM25 (i.e., amino acids 1–84, 105–190, and 431–630) were searched in the Protein Data Bank using the Dali web server. LINC00955 was aligned with the nucleotides in 1MEY using Clustal Omega.
Statistical analysis
The mean ± standard deviation (± SD) of three separate experiments are used to represent all experimental data and were compared using t-tests. p < 0.05 was deemed statistically significant.
Discussion
LncRNAs have significant roles in the pathophysiology and development of a number of malignancies [
22], indicating that combined targeting of dysregulated lncRNAs may become a potential strategy for cancer treatment in the future [
23]. To date, however, only the roles of a few lncRNAs have been thoroughly characterized. The discovery and identification of additional lncRNAs, and their underlying mechanisms, are of great significance for cancer treatment. The present study, using both bioinformatics and experimental analyses, demonstrated that LINC00955 expression was substantially downregulated in CRC tissues. Moreover, lower expression of LINC00955 was linked to a poorer prognosis in patients with CRC, suggesting that LINC00955 may be a prognostic biomarker. LINC00955 inhibited CRC cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo. When considered together, these results demonstrate that LINC00955 may be a significant tumor suppressor in CRC.
The cell cycle is both important and strictly controlled, as abnormal cell cycle processes can lead to genome instability and cancer progression [
24]. Little is known about the molecular function of lncRNAs in cell cycle regulation in comparison with the diverse proteins involved in cell cycle regulation and linked with cancer-causing mutations [
25]. Several lncRNAs regulate the cell cycle and cell proliferation by directly regulating DNA replication or indirectly controlling expression of vital cell cycle-regulating genes [
26]. For example, lncRNA MIR31HG binds to HIF1A, targets p21, and promotes cell proliferation by enhancing cell cycle progression in HNSCC [
27]. The results presented herein showed that LINC00955 blocked the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle and inhibited proliferation of CRC cells by reducing expression of CDK2. CDK2 is activated by complexing with a cyclin, and is active from G1 phase progression and throughout S phase [
28]. CDK2 expression is upregulated in cancers [
29], and CDK2 is crucial for anchorage-independent proliferation mediated by oncogenes [
30]. Cancer therapy is thought to target CDK2 in some cases, and several small-molecule CDK2 inhibitors are currently undergoing clinical trials. One example is Alvocidib, a purine analogue and combination inhibitor [
31]; however, this agent shows unsatisfactory efficacy, high toxicity, and non-specificity. Additional key regulators of CDK2 may suppress cell proliferation during oncogenesis. For example, the present study identified a new lncRNA that regulates CDK2 in CRC, suggesting a new direction for CDK2 inhibitors and suppressors of CRC cell proliferation.
Current research on CDK2 is mainly concerned with its kinase activity [
32]. Fewer studies, however, have evaluated the regulation of CDK2 expression, especially its stability. The current investigation discovered that LINC00955 mediates the ubiquitination-degradation of CDK2 through the E3 ligase PHIP. Ubiquitination is a significant post-translational change involved in controlling a number of biological functions. The ubiquitination cascade includes activating enzymes (E1s), conjugating enzymes (E2s), and ligases (E3s) [
33], with E3 ligase playing a crucial role in specifically determining the ubiquitination and degradation of target proteins. PHIP is a cytosolic protein encoded on chromosome 6q14.1, which participates in insulin and IGF-1 signaling and interacts only with the PH domain of IRS-1 [
34]. To our knowledge, PHIP has not been reported to function as a substrate protein for E3 ligase. The present study is therefore the first to show that CDK2 is an ubiquitinated substrate of PHIP. Evaluation of clinical tissue samples demonstrated that PHIP expression was lower in CRC tissues than in normal colon tissues. Moreover, functional experiments showed that PHIP plays a role as a tumor suppressor gene during development of CRC.
Additionally, the current study discovered that LINC00955 markedly increased PHIP promoter activity. PHIP inhibited CRC tumor cell proliferation. Several tumor suppressor genes can be rendered inactive by aberrant CpG island methylation in their promoter regions, highlighting the significance of epigenetic changes during carcinogenesis [
35]. DNA methylation patterns are generally regulated by DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) [
36], with DNMT3B acting as a de novo methyltransferase [
37]. In HCT116 colon cancer cells, disruption of DNMT1 and DNMT3B decreases the 5-mC concentration by 95% and delays cell proliferation [
38]. Few studies to date, however, have focused on the specific molecular mechanisms by which DNMT3B participates in the process of CRC proliferation. The present study proposes a novel mechanism by which LINC00955 inhibits CRC cell proliferation by downregulating DNMT3B to inhibit methylation of the PHIP promoter. The PHIP gene, however, is not likely to be the only target of DNMT3B during cell proliferation. Alterations in expression of intracellular DNA methyltransferases must therefore affect other candidate genes and related pathways, indicating a need for additional studies. Assessment of the mechanism by which LINC00955 regulates DNMT3B found that LINC00955 inhibits DNMT3B transcription by downregulating transcription factor Sp1.
The molecular processes by which lncRNAs function in the growth of tumors are intricate. LncRNAs typically exert their biological functions through physical interactions with regulatory proteins, miRNAs, or other cellular factors [
39], although evidence suggests that it may be more important for lncRNAs to exert their biological functions through their target proteins. Some lncRNAs remain connected to their transcription sites, and interact with proteins to regulate expression of cis genes [
40]. Some of them serve as molecular spies and bind to particular transcription factors, preventing them from attaching to DNA [
41]. LncRNAs can also participate in protein–protein interactions. The transcriptional regulator Sp1 belongs to the family of transcription factors [
42]. Sp1 was identified as a promoter-specific binding factor involved in a number of biological processes in mammalian cells [
43]. Sp1 plays an important role in CRC by regulating genes involved in all cancer-related processes, including growth factor-independent proliferation, immortality, evasion of apoptosis, angiogenesis, tissue invasion, and metastasis [
44,
45]. The transcriptional activity, DNA-binding affinity, and protein stability of Sp1 can all be changed post-translationally [
46]. Sp1 is frequently post-translationally modified through phosphorylation, glycosylation, acetylation, ubiquitination, and sumoylation [
47], with ubiquitination being an important post-translational modification [
48]. Several E3 ligases specifically recognize Sp1 and mediate its ubiquitination and subsequent degradation [
49,
50]. Less is known, however, about the biological roles of lncRNAs during E3 ligase-mediated ubiquitination and degradation of Sp1.
The present study found that LINC00955 post-translationally regulates Sp1 ubiquitination and degradation by promoting the binding of E3 ligase to Sp1. The TRIM family of proteins, which is distinguished by the presence of three conserved N-terminal domains, a RING domain, one or two B-Boxes (B1/B2), and a coiled-coil domain, includes the 17 beta-estradiol and type I IFN-inducible E3 ligase known as TRIM25 [
51]. TRIM25 acts as an E3 ubiquitin ligase that promotes ubiquitination of Sp1 at K610 [
20]. The present study found that LINC00955 promotes degradation of Sp1 by enhancing binding of the E3 ligase TRIM25 to Sp1, with subsequent degradation of Sp1 protein. LINC00955 nucleotides 2073–2204 interact with Sp1 protein, and nucleotides 984–1135 interact with TRIM25 protein. LINC00955 serves as a scaffold for protein–protein interactions that inhibit proliferation of CRC, indicating that LINC00955 plays a direct role in proliferation of CRC. In recent years, intracellular protein degradation pathways and the development of protein-targeted degradation technology have become of interest to researchers in the field of drug research and development [
52]. The current research found that LINC00955 can act as a scaffold molecule that participates in the ubiquitination and degradation process, providing new ideas and directions for research on ubiquitin–proteasome systems.
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