nach oben

Erschienen in:

01.01.2008 | Review Paper

Estimating HIV Prevalence and Risk Behaviors of Transgender Persons in the United States: A Systematic Review

verfasst von: Jeffrey H. Herbst, Elizabeth D. Jacobs, Teresa J. Finlayson, Vel S. McKleroy, Mary Spink Neumann, Nicole Crepaz, for the HIV/AIDS Prevention Research Synthesis Team

Erschienen in: AIDS and Behavior | Ausgabe 1/2008

Einloggen, um Zugang zu erhalten

Abstract

Transgender populations in the United States have been impacted by the HIV/AIDS epidemic. This systematic review estimates the prevalence of HIV infection and risk behaviors of transgender persons. Comprehensive searches of the US-based HIV behavioral prevention literature identified 29 studies focusing on male-to-female (MTF) transgender women; five of these studies also reported data on female-to-male (FTM) transgender men. Using meta-analytic approaches, prevalence rates were estimated by synthesizing weighted means. Meta-analytic findings indicated that 27.7% (95% confidence interval [CI], 24.8–30.6%) of MTFs tested positive for HIV infection (four studies), while 11.8% (95% CI, 10.5–13.2%) of MTFs self-reported being HIV-seropositive (18 studies). Higher HIV infection rates were found among African-American MTFs regardless of assessment method (56.3% test result; 30.8% self-report). Large percentages of MTFs (range, 27–48%) reported engaging in risky behaviors (e.g., unprotected receptive anal intercourse, multiple casual partners, sex work). Prevalence rates of HIV and risk behaviors were low among FTMs. Contextual factors potentially related to increased HIV risk include mental health concerns, physical abuse, social isolation, economic marginalization, and unmet transgender-specific healthcare needs. Additional research is needed to explain the causes of HIV risk behavior of transgender persons. These findings should be considered when developing and adapting prevention interventions for transgender populations.

Abdul-Quader, A. S., Heckathorn, D. D., McKnight, C., Bramson, H., Nemeth, C., Sabin, K., Gallagher, K., & Des Jarlais, D. C. (2006). Effectiveness of respondent-driven sampling for recruiting drug users in New York City: Findings from a pilot study. Journal of Urban Health, 83, 459–476.CrossRefPubMed

Asian Pacific AIDS Intervention Team. STAR (Serving Transgenders at Risk) Program. Los Angeles, CA: Asian Pacific AIDS Intervention Team. Retrieved February 1, 2007 from: http://www.apaitonline.org/services_programs_bionic.asp

Bockting, W., & Avery, E. (Eds.). (2005). Transgender health and HIV prevention: Needs assessment studies from transgender communities across the United States. Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Medical Press.

Bockting, W. O., & Kirk, S. (Eds.) (2001). Transgender and HIV: Risks, prevention and care. Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Press.

Bockting, W., Miner, M., & Rosser, B. R. S. (2007). Latino men’s sexual behavior with transgender persons. Archives of Sexual Behavior. e-published February 27, 2007.

*Bockting, W. O., Robinson, B. E., Forberg, J., & Scheltema, K. (2005). Evaluation of a sexual health approach to reducing HIV/STD risk in the transgender community. AIDS Care, 17, 289–303.

*Bockting, W. O., Robinson, B. E., & Rosser, B. R. S. (1998). Transgender HIV prevention: A qualitative needs assessment. AIDS Care, 10, 505–526.

Bockting, W. O., Rosser, B. R. S., & Scheltema, K. (1999). Transgender HIV prevention: Implementation and evaluation of a workshop. Health Education Research, 14, 177–183.CrossRefPubMed

Boles, J., & Elifson, K.W. (1994). The social organization of transvestite prostitution and AIDS. Social Science and Medicine, 39, 85–93.CrossRefPubMed

Bradford, J., Xavier, J., Safford, L. A., & Hendricks, M. L. (2004). Training public health staff for HIV prevention in transgender communities. Paper presented at the 132nd Annual Meeting of the American Public Health Association, Washington, DC, November.

Branson, B. M., Handsfield, H. H., Lampe, M. A., Janssen, R. S., Taylor, A. W., Lyss, S. B., & Clark, J. E. (2006). Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 55, 1–17.

California Department of Health Services. (2005). California HIV counseling and testing annual report: January–December 2002. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Health Services, Office of AIDS. Available at: http://www.dhs.ca.gov/AIDS/Reports/PDF/2002HIVCTAnnualReport091605.pdf

California Department of Health Services. (2006). California HIV counseling and testing annual report: January–December 2003. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Health Services, Office of AIDS. Available at: http://www.dhs.ca.gov/AIDS/Reports/PDF/2006/27862003HIVCTAnnRept120106.pdf

Carr-Paxton, K., Guentzel, H., & Trombacco, K. (2006). Lessons learned in developing a research partnership with the transgender community. American Journal of Community Psychology, 37, 349–356.CrossRef

Center for AIDS Prevention Studies. (2001). What are the HIV prevention needs of male-to-female transgender persons (MTFs)? San Francisco, CA: University of California, San Francisco. Available at: http://www.caps.ucsf.edu/pubs/FS/MTF.php

Centers for Disease Control, Prevention. (1999). Compendium of HIV prevention interventions with evidence of effectiveness. Atlanta, GA: Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Centers for Disease Control, Prevention. (2004). Number of persons tested for HIV—United States, 2002. MMWR: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 53, 1110–1113.

*Clements-Nolle, K., Marx, R., Guzman, R., & Katz, M. (2001a). HIV prevalence, risk behaviors, health care use, and mental health status of transgender persons: Implications for public health intervention. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 915–921.

*Clements-Nolle, K., Wilkinson, W., Kitano, K., & Marx, R. (2001b). HIV prevention and health service needs of the transgender community in San Francisco. In W. Bockting, & S. Kirk (Eds.), Transgender and HIV: Risks, prevention and care (pp. 69–89). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press, Inc.

Clements-Nolle, K., Marx, R., & Katz, M. (2006). Attempted suicide among transgender persons: The influence of gender-based discrimination and victimization. Journal of Homosexuality, 51, 53–69.CrossRefPubMed

Coan, D. L., Schrager, W., & Packer, T. (2005). The role of male sexual partners in HIV infection among male-to-female transgendered individuals. In W. O. Bockting, & E. Avery (Eds.), Transgender health and HIV prevention: Needs assessment studies from transgender communities across the United States (pp. 21–30). Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Medical Press.

*Conare, K., Cross, L., Little, M., et al. (1997). Needs assessment of transgendered people in Philadelphia for HIV/AIDS and other health and social services. Philadelphia, PA: ActionAIDS, Inc., Unity, Inc., and University of Pennsylvania, School of Social Work.

Corado, R. (2006). Latino transgender program in Washington, DC. Paper presented at the United States Conference on AIDS, Hollywood, FL, September.

Dean, L., Meyer, I. H., Robinson, K., Sell, R. L., Sember, R., Silenzio, V. M. B., Bowen, D. J., Bradford, J., Rothblum, E., White, J., Dunn, P., Lawrence, A., Wolfe, D., & Xavier, J. (2000). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender health: Findings and concerns. Journal of the Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, 4, 102–151.CrossRef

*Elifson, K. W., Boles, J., Posey, E., Sweat, M., Darrow, W., & Elsea, W. (1993). Male transvestite prostitutes and HIV risk. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 260–262.

Fowler, F. J. (1998). Design and evaluation of survey questions. In L. Bickman, & D. J. Rog (Eds.), Handbook of applied social research methods (pp. 343–374). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

*Garofalo, R., Deleon, J., Osmer, E., Doll, M., & Harper, G. W. (2006). Overlooked, misunderstood and at-risk: Exploring the lives and HIV risk of ethnic minority male-to-female transgender youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 230–236.

Gribble, J. N., Miller, H. G., Rogers, S. M., & Turner, C. F. (1999). Interview mode and measurement of sexual behaviors: Methodological issues. Journal of Sex Research, 36, 16–24.CrossRef

Hansen, D. J., Nangle, D. W., & Ellis, J. T. (1996). Reconsideration of the use of peer sociometrics for evaluating social-skills training. Implications of an idiographic assessment of temporal stability. Behavior Modification, 20, 281–299.CrossRefPubMed

Hein, D., & Kirk, M. (1999). Education and soul-searching: The Enterprise HIV Prevention Group. International Journal of Transgenderism, 3. Available at: http://www.symposion.com/ijt/hiv_risk/hein.htm

HIV Epidemiology Program. (2006). An epidemiologic profile of HIV and AIDS: Los Angeles County, 2004. Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles County Department of Health Services. Available at: http://lapublichealth.org/wwwfiles/ph/hae/hiv/2004_EpiProfile.PDF

Jacobs, J., & Freundlich, M. (2006). Achieving permanency for LGBTQ youth. Child Welfare, 85, 299–316.PubMed

*Kammerer, N., Mason, T., Connors, M., & Durkee, R. (2001). Transgender health and social service needs in the context of HIV risk. In W. Bockting, & S. Kirk (Eds.), Transgender and HIV: Risks, prevention and care (pp. 39–57). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press, Inc.

Keatley, J. (2006). Transgender HIV issues: Overview to effective transgender programs institute. Paper presented at the United States Conference on AIDS, Hollywood, FL, September.

*Kellogg, T. A., Clements-Nolle, K., Dilley, J., Katz, M. H., & McFarland, W. (2001). Incidence of Human Immunodeficiency Virus among male-to-female transgendered persons in San Francisco. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 28, 380–384.

*Kenagy, G. P. (2002). HIV among transgendered people. AIDS Care, 14, 127–134.

*Kenagy, G. P. (2005a). The health and social service needs of transgender people in Philadelphia. In W. O. Bockting, & E. Avery (Eds.), Transgender health and HIV prevention: Needs assessment studies from transgender communities across the United States (pp. 49–56). Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Medical Press.

*Kenagy, G. P. (2005b). Transgender health: Findings from two needs assessment studies in Philadelphia. Health and Social Work, 30, 19–26.

*Kenagy, G. P., & Bostwick, W. P. (2005). Health and social service needs of transgender people in Chicago. In W. O. Bockting, & E. Avery (Eds.), Transgender health and HIV prevention: Needs assessment studies from transgender communities across the United States (pp. 57–66). Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Medical Press.

Kenagy, G. P., & Hsieh, C. M. (2005). The risk less known: Female-to-male transgender persons’ vulnerability to HIV infection. AIDS Care, 17, 195–207.CrossRefPubMed

Kohler, L. (2006). Primary care for transgender people at risk for or living with HIV. Paper presented at the United States Conference on AIDS, Hollywood, FL, September.

Lansky, A. L., Sullivan, P. S., Gallagher, K. M., & Fleming, P. L. (2007). HIV behavioral surveillance in the US: A conceptual framework. Public Health Reports, 122, 16–23.PubMed

Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Lombardi, E., & van Servellen, G. (2000a). Building culturally sensitive substance use prevention and treatment programs for transgendered populations. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 19, 291–296.CrossRefPubMed

Lombardi, E. L., & van Servellen, G. (2000b). Correcting deficiencies in HIV/AIDS care for transgendered individuals. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 11, 61–69.CrossRefPubMed

*Lombardi, E. L., Wilchins, R. A., Priesing, D., & Malouf, D. (2001). Gender violence: Transgender experiences with violence and discrimination. Journal of Homosexuality, 42, 89–101.

Lurie, S. (2005). Identifying training needs of health-care providers related to treatment and care of transgendered patients: A qualitative needs assessment conducted in New England. International Journal of Transgenderism, 8, 93–112.CrossRef

Lyles, C. M., Crepaz, N., Herbst, J. H., & Kay, L. S. (2006). Evidence-based HIV behavioral prevention from the perspective of CDC’s HIV/AIDS Prevention Research Synthesis Team. AIDS Education and Prevention, 18(Suppl. 1), 21–31.CrossRefPubMed

Lyles, C. M., Kay, L. S., Crepaz, N., Herbst, J. H., Passin, W. F., Kim, A. S., Rama, S. M., Thadiparthi, S., DeLuca, J. B., & Mullins, M. M. for the HIV/AIDS Prevention Research Synthesis Team. (2007). Best-evidence interventions: Findings from a systematic review of HIV behavioral interventions for US populations at high risk, 2000–2004. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 133–143.CrossRefPubMed

Maguen, S., Shipherd, J. C., & Harris, H. N. (2005). Providing culturally sensitive care for transgender patients. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 12, 479–490.CrossRef

*McGowan, C. K. (1999). Transgender needs assessment, December 1999. New York, NY: HIV Prevention Planning Unit of the New York City Department of Health.

McKleroy, V. S., Galbraith, J. S., Cummings, B., Jones, P., Harshbarger, C., Collins, C., Gelaude, D., Carey, J. W., & the ADAPT Team. (2006). Adapting evidence-based behavioral interventions for new settings and target populations. AIDS Education and Prevention, 18(Suppl. 1), 59–73.CrossRefPubMed

Mediano, E. E., & Ilada, G. G. (2003). Addressing life issues in doing HIV prevention in the transgender community. Paper presented at the 2003 National HIV Prevention Conference, Atlanta, GA, July.

*Melendez, R. M., Exner, T. A., Ehrhardt, A. A., Dodge, B., Remien, R. H., Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Lightfoot, M., Hong, D., & the National Institute of Mental Health Healthy Living Project Team. (2005). Health and health care among male-to-female transgender persons who are HIV positive. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 5–7.CrossRef

*Nemoto, T., Luke, D., Mamo, L., Ching, A., & Patria, J. (1999). HIV risk behaviours among male-to-female transgenders in comparison with homosexual or bisexual males and heterosexual females. AIDS Care, 11, 297–312.CrossRefPubMed

*Nemoto, T., Operario, D., Keatley, J., Han, L., & Soma, T. (2004a). HIV risk behaviors among male-to-female transgender persons of color in San Francisco. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 1193–1199.PubMedCrossRef

*Nemoto, T., Operario, D., Keatley, J., & Villegas, D. (2004b). Social context of HIV risk behaviours among male-to-female transgenders of color. AIDS Care, 16, 724–735.

Nemoto, T., Operario, D., Keatley, J., Nguyen, H., & Sugano, E. (2005). Promoting health for transgender women: Transgender resources and neighborhood space (TRANS) program in San Francisco. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 382–384.CrossRefPubMed

*Nemoto, T., Sausa, L. A., Operario, D., & Keatley, J. (2006). Need for HIV/AIDS education and intervention for MTF transgenders: Responding to the challenge. Journal of Homosexuality, 51, 183–202.

*Odo, C., Hawelu, A., & Eo na Mahu o Hawaii. (2001). The extraordinary health needs of Hawaii’s Mahu. Pacific Health Dialog, 8, 327–334.

Operario, D, & Nemoto, T. (2005). Sexual risk behavior and substance use among a sample of Asian Pacific Islander transgendered women. AIDS Education and Prevention, 17, 430–443.CrossRefPubMed

Pisani, E., Girault, P., Gultom, M., Sukartini, N., Kumalawati, J., Jazan, S., & Donegan, E. (2004). HIV, syphilis infection, and sexual practices among transgenders, male sex workers, and other men who have sex with men in Jakarta, Indonesia. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 80, 536–540.CrossRefPubMed

Ramirez-Valles, J., Heckathorn, D. D., Vazquez, R., Diaz, R. M., & Campbell, R. T. (2005). From networks to populations: The development and application of respondent-driven sampling among IDUs and Latino gay men. AIDS and Behavior, 9, 387–402.CrossRefPubMed

*Reback, C. J., & Lombardi, E. L. (2001). HIV risk behaviors of male-to-female transgenders in a community-based harm reduction program. In W. Bockting, & S. Kirk (Eds.), Transgender and HIV: Risks, prevention and care (pp. 59–68). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press, Inc.

*Reback, C. J., Lombardi, E. L., Simon, P. A., & Frye, D. M. (2005). HIV seroprevalence and risk behaviors among transgendered women who exchange sex in comparison with those who do not. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 17, 5–22.

*Reback, C. J., & Simon, P. (2004). The Los Angeles Transgender Health Study: Creating a research and community collaboration. In B. P. Bowser, S. I. Mishra, C. J. Reback, & G. F. Lemp (Eds.), Preventing AIDS: Community-science collaborations (pp. 115–131). New York, NY: Haworth Press.

*Risser, J. M. H., Shelton, A., McCurdy, S., Atkinson, J., Padgett, P., Useche, B., Thomas, B., & Williams, M. (2005). Sex, drugs, violence, and HIV status among male-to-female transgender persons in Houston, Texas. In W. O. Bockting, & E. Avery (Eds.), Transgender health and HIV prevention: Needs assessment studies from transgender communities across the United States (pp. 67–74). Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Medical Press.

*Rodriguez-Madera, S., & Toro-Alfonso, J. (2005). Gender as an obstacle in HIV/AIDS prevention: Considerations for the development of HIV/AIDS prevention efforts for male-to-female transgenders. In W. O. Bockting, & E. Avery (Eds.), Transgender Health and HIV prevention: Needs assessment studies from transgender communities across the United States (pp. 113–122). Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Medical Press.

*Rose, V., Scheer, S., Balls, J. E., Page-Shafer, K., & McFarland, W. (2003). Investigation of the high HIV prevalence in the transgender African American community in San Francisco. Available at: http://www2.hawaii.edu/∼lgbti/high%20HIV%20Prevalence%20in%20the%20Transgender%20African%20American%20Community.pdf

Salcedo, B. (2006). Projecto Bienstar: Services for Latina transgender women. Paper presented at the United States Conference on AIDS, Hollywood, FL, September.

San Francisco Department of Public Health. (2006). HIV/AIDS epidemiology annual report, 2005. San Francisco, CA: HIV/AIDS Statistics, Epidemiology and Intervention Research Section, San Francisco Department of Public Health. Available at: http://www.dph.sf.ca.us/PHP/RptsHIVAIDS/HIVAIDAnnlRpt2005.pdf

Setia M. S., Lindan C, Jeranjani H. R., Kumta, S., Ekstrand, M., Mathur, M., Gogate, A., Kavi, A. R., Anand, V., & Klausner, J. D. (2006) Men who have sex with men and transgenders in Mumbai, India: An emerging risk group for STIs and HIV. Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology, 72, 425–431.PubMedCrossRef

Shankle, M. D. (2006). The handbook of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender public health: A practioner’s guide to service. Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Press.

Sifakis, F., Flynn, C. P., Metsch, L., et al. (2005). HIV prevalence, unrecognized infection, and HIV testing among men who have sex with men: Five U.S. cities, June 2004–April 2005. MMWR: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 54, 597–601.

*Simon, P. A., Reback, C. J., & Bemis, C. C. (2000). HIV prevalence and incidence among male-to-female transsexuals receiving HIV prevention services in Los Angeles County. AIDS, 14, 2953–2955.

*Singer, T. B., Cochran, M., & Adamec, R. (1997). Final report by the transgender health action coalition (THAC) to the Philadelphia foundation legacy fund. Philadelphia, PA: Transgender Health Action Coalition.

Solomon, Y., Card, J. J., & Malow, R. M. (2006). Adapting efficacious interventions - Advancing translational research in HIV prevention. Evaluation and the Health Professions, 29, 162–194.CrossRef

Spizzichino, L., Zaccarelli, M., Rezza, G., Ippolito, G., Antinori, A., & Gattari, P. (2001). HIV infection among foreign transsexual sex workers in Rome: Prevalence, behavior patterns, and seroconversion rates. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 28, 405–411.CrossRefPubMed

Stall, R., Mills, T. C., Williamson, J., Hart, T., Greenwood, G., Paul, J., Pollack, L., Binson, D., Osmond, D., & Catania, J. A. (2003). Association of co-occurring psychosocial health problems and increased vulnerability to HIV/AIDS among urban men who have sex with men. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 939–942.PubMed

*Stephens, T., Cozza, S., & Braithwaite, R. L. (1999). Transsexual orientation in HIV risk behaviours in an adult male prison. International Journal of STD and AIDS, 10, 28–33.

*Sugano, E., Nemoto, T., & Operario, D. (2006). The impact of exposure to transphobia on HIV risk behavior in a sample of transgendered women of color in San Francisco. AIDS and Behavior, 10, 217–225.CrossRefPubMed

Sumartojo, E. (2000). Structural factors in HIV prevention: Concepts, examples, and implications for research. AIDS, 14(Suppl. 1), S3–S10.CrossRefPubMed

*Sykes, D. L. (1999). Transgendered people: An “invisible” population. California HIV/AIDS Update, 12, 1–6.

*Sykes, D. L., & Truax, S. R. (1999). Factors related to HIV risk in transgendered people. Paper presented at the 1999 National HIV Prevention Conference, Atlanta, GA, July.

Thompson, H. (2006). Transitions Project. Paper presented at the United States Conference on AIDS, Hollywood, FL, September.

Thompson, H. (2007). Designing effective interventions for transgender populations. Workshop presented at the 2007 HIV Prevention Leadership Summit, New Orleans, LA, May.

Warren, B. E. (2001). Sex, truth, and videotape: HIV prevention at the gender identity project in New York City. In W. Bockting, & S. Kirk (Eds.), Transgender and HIV: Risks, prevention and care (pp. 145–151). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press, Inc.

*Weinberg, M. S., Shaver, F. M., & Williams, C. J. (1999). Gendered sex work in the San Francisco Tenderloin. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 28, 503–521.

Wiessing, L. G., van Roosmalen, M. S., Koedijk, P., Bieleman, B., & Houweling, H. (1999). Silicones, hormones and HIV in transgender street prostitutes. AIDS, 13, 2315–2316.CrossRefPubMed

Wilchins, R., Lombardi, E., Priesing, D., & Malouf, D. (1997). First national survey of transgender violence. New York, NY: GenderPAC.

Winningham, A. L., & Seal, D.W. (2003). Transgender persons: HIV prevention needs. Milwaukee, WI, Center for AIDS Intervention Research. Available at: http://www.wihivpts.wisc.edu/libraryDownload.asp?docid=67

Wolitski, R. J., Henny, K. D., Lyles, C. M., Purcell, D. W., Carey, J. W., Crepaz, N., O’Leary, A., Mastro, T. D., Cleveland, J. C., Nakashima, A. K., & Janssen, R. S. (2006). Evolution of HIV/AIDS prevention programs—United States, 1981–2006. MMWR: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 55, 597–603.

Xavier, J., Hitchcock, D., Hollinshead, S., Keisling, M., Lewis, Y., Lombardi, E., Lurie, S., Sanchez, D., Singer, B., Stone, M. H., & Williams, B. (2004). An overview of U.S. trans health priorities: A report by the Eliminating Disparities Working Group. Washington, DC, National Coalition for LGBT Health. Available at: http://www.nctequality.org/HealthPriorities.pdf

*Xavier, J. M., Robbin, M., Singer, B., & Budd, E. (2005). A needs assessment of transgendered people of color living in Washington, DC. In W. O. Bockting, & E. Avery (Eds.), Transgender health and HIV prevention: Needs assessment studies from transgender communities across the United States (pp. 31–47). Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Medical Press.

Zehender, G., Colasante, C., de Maddalena, C., Bernini, F., Savasi, V., Persico, T., Merli, S., Ridolfo, A., Santambrogio, S., Moroni, M., & Galli, M. (2004). High prevalence of human t-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) in immigrant male-to-female transsexual sex workers with HIV-1 infection. Journal of Medical Virology, 74, 207–215.CrossRefPubMed

Titel: Estimating HIV Prevalence and Risk Behaviors of Transgender Persons in the United States: A Systematic Review
verfasst von: Jeffrey H. Herbst
Elizabeth D. Jacobs
Teresa J. Finlayson
Vel S. McKleroy
Mary Spink Neumann
Nicole Crepaz
for the HIV/AIDS Prevention Research Synthesis Team
Publikationsdatum: 01.01.2008
Verlag: Springer US
Erschienen in: AIDS and Behavior / Ausgabe 1/2008
Print ISSN: 1090-7165
Elektronische ISSN: 1573-3254
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-007-9299-3

Leitlinien kompakt für die Innere Medizin

Mit medbee Pocketcards sicher entscheiden.

^{Seit 2022 gehört die medbee GmbH zum Springer Medizin Verlag}

Kostenlos registrieren

Update Innere Medizin

Bestellen Sie unseren Fach-Newsletter und bleiben Sie gut informiert.

Newsletter bestellen

Live-Webinar "Urologie und Sexualmedizin in der Praxis"

Springer Medizin

Estimating HIV Prevalence and Risk Behaviors of Transgender Persons in the United States: A Systematic Review

Abstract

Leitlinien kompakt für die Innere Medizin

Neu im Fachgebiet Innere Medizin

Ist Fasten vor Koronarinterventionen wirklich nötig?

Typ-2-Diabetes: Ernährungsunsicherheit vervierfacht Risiko für schwere Hypoglykämien

Mehr Brustkrebs, aber weniger andere gynäkologische Tumoren mit Levonorgestrel-IUS

GLP-1-Agonist Semaglutid wirkt kardio- und nephroprotektiv

Update Innere Medizin

Live-Webinar "Urologie und Sexualmedizin in der Praxis"

Springer Medizin

Abstract

Bitte loggen Sie sich ein, um Zugang zu diesem Inhalt zu erhalten

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 1/2008

Moderating Effects of Age on the Alcohol and Sexual Risk Taking Association: An Online Daily Diary Study of Men Who have Sex with Men

Medication Adherence Mediates the Relationship between Adherence Self-efficacy and Biological Assessments of HIV Health among those with Alcohol Use Disorders

Emotional Support and Affect: Associations with Health Behaviors and Active Coping Efforts in Men Living with HIV

Increased HIV Risk Associated with Criminal Justice Involvement among Men on Methadone

HIV Treatment Adherence and Sexual Functioning

Optimal Recall Period and Response Task for Self-Reported HIV Medication Adherence

Leitlinien kompakt für die Innere Medizin

Neu im Fachgebiet Innere Medizin

Ist Fasten vor Koronarinterventionen wirklich nötig?

Typ-2-Diabetes: Ernährungsunsicherheit vervierfacht Risiko für schwere Hypoglykämien

Mehr Brustkrebs, aber weniger andere gynäkologische Tumoren mit Levonorgestrel-IUS

GLP-1-Agonist Semaglutid wirkt kardio- und nephroprotektiv

Update Innere Medizin