1 Introduction
2 Mechanisms of Action and Pharmacological Properties of Trazodone
2.1 Trazodone: A Serotonin Receptor Antagonist and Reuptake Inhibitor (SARI) Antidepressant
2.2 Dosage and Administration
2.3 Prolonged-Release Formulations
3 Traditional Role of Trazodone in the Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
4 Efficacy and Tolerability of Trazodone in MDD
Reference (year) | Study design | Study population (N) | Treatment daily dosage, mg/day (N) | Active treatment duration | Endpoints | Efficacy results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Blacker et al. [46] (1988) | Randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, multi-centre | DSM-III-defined major depression, GP patients (N = 227) | Trazodone 150 (N = 112) Recommended dosages of mianserin 30–60 (N = 36), dothiepin 75–150 (N = 35) and amitriptyline 75–100 (N = 44) | 6 weeks | Efficacy: HAM-D, global severity and improvement Safety: total AE score | No significant differences in efficacy endpoints between treatment groups |
Davey [48] (1988) | Randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, multi-centre | DSM-III-defined major depression, GP patients (N = 182) | Trazodone nocte 150 (N = 95) Trazodone nocte 50 tid (N = 87) | 6 weeks | Efficacy: HAM-D, global severity and improvement Safety: total AE score | No significant differences in efficacy endpoints between treatment groups |
Debus et al. [49] (1988) | Randomized, double-blind, parallel-group | DSM-III-defined major depression, HAM-D score ≥20, outpatients (N = 43) | Trazodone 50–400 tid (N = 17) Fluoxetine 20–60 tid (N = 18) | 6 weeks | Efficacy: HAM-D response rate (HAM-D < 10 or ≥50 % reduction in HAM-D), IDS-C | HAM-D scores significantly lower at weeks 1 and 2 with fluoxetine vs. trazodone Trazodone improved HAM-D sleep subscale score significantly more than fluoxetine (p = 0.001) |
Moon and Davey [50] (1988) | Randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, single-centre | DSM-III-defined major depression, GP patients (N = 39) | Trazodone nocte 150 (N = 19) Mianserin nocte 30–60 (N = 20) | 6 weeks | Efficacy: HAM-D, global severity and improvement | No significant differences in efficacy endpoints between treatment groups |
Botros et al. [47] (1989) | Randomized, double-blind, parallel-group | Depression [≥17 HAM-D score] (N = 20) | Trazodone 50–400 (N = 10) Amitriptyline 25–200 (N = 10) | 3 weeks | Efficacy: MADRS, SAD, NDS, overall severity of illness scale | No difference in onset of antidepressant or anxiolytic action between treatment groups |
Moon et al. [40] (1990) | Randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, multi-centre | DSM-III-defined MDD (N = 247) | Controlled-release trazodone 150 (N = 172) Standard trazodone 150 (N = 175) | 6 weeks | Efficacy: Global severity; global improvement; HAM-D 17- and 21-item Safety: AEs assessed by a checklist of 5 symptoms (dizziness, drowsiness, dry mouth, headache and nausea), an open question, and spontaneous comments | No statistically significant differences between treatment groups in any efficacy measure |
Beasley et al. [37] (1991) | Randomized, double-blind | DSM-III-defined MDD (N = 126) | Trazodone 250 (N = 61) Fluoxetine 20 (N = 65) | 6 weeks | Efficacy: HAM-D 21-item; CGI-S; PGI-I; Guild Memory Test Safety: AEs reported included those related to activation or sedation; discontinuation due to activating/sedating effects | No statistically significant differences between treatment groups with respect to mean HAM-D21 improvement |
Cunningham et al [38] (1994) | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multi-centre | DSM-III-R-defined MDD (N = 225) | Trazodone 50–300 (N = 77) Venlafaxine 25–150 (N = 72) Placebo (N = 76) | 6 weeks; responders continued double-blind treatment for 12 months | Efficacy: HAM-D; MADRS; CGI Safety: AEs; physical, laboratory and ECG examinations | Both active treatments were significantly more effective than placebo, but venlafaxine produced more improvement in cognitive disturbance and retardation factors. Trazodone was more effective against the sleep disturbance factor |
Weisler et al. [45] (1994) | Randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, multi-centre | DSM-III-defined moderate-to-severe MDD (N = 124) | Trazodone 150–400 (N = 61) Bupropion 225–450 (N = 63) | 6 weeks | Efficacy: HAM-D 21-item; CGI-S; CGI-I; HAM-A Safety: treatment-emergent AEs | The overall efficacy of the two drugs was similar; improvement with trazodone was significantly greater on day 7 because of effects on sleep; 58 % of the bupropion-treated patients and 46 % of the trazodone-treated patients were much/very much improved |
Van Moffaert et al. [44] (1995) | Randomized, double-blind, multi-centre | DSM-III-defined MDD (N = 200) | Trazodone 150–450 (N = 100) Mirtazapine 24–72 (N = 100) | 6 weeks | Efficacy: HAM-D 17-item; MADRS; BPRS; BDI, GAS Safety: AEs; laboratory and ECG examinations; BP, HR, bodyweight | Improvement was generally greater for mirtazapine, with statistically significant differences vs. trazodone in HAM-D total and Bech melancholia and retardation subscores, BPRS total score, GAS and BDI scores and responder rates |
Kasper et al. [39] (2005) | Randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, multi-centre | DSM-IV-defined MDD (N = 108) | Trazodone prolonged-release 150–450 bid (N = 55) Paroxetine 20–40 (N = 53) | 6 weeks | Efficacy: CGIS-S; CGI-GI; HAM-D 17-item; MADRS; response rates (patients with 50 % improvement from baseline in HAM-D and/or MADRS); remission rates (patients with HAM-D score ≤7); onset time of efficacy (the visit where a 50 % improvement in HAM-D and/or MADRS was observed) Safety: AEs | No significant differences between the groups at endpoint in efficacy measures, responder or remission rates. Sleep disorders were significantly less evident with trazodone (p < 0.05) |
Munizza et al. [41] (2006) | Randomized, double-blind, multi-centre | DSM-IV-defined MDD (N = 122) | Trazodone prolonged-release 150–450 bid (N = 62) Sertraline 50–100 (N = 60) | 6 weeks | HAM-D 17-item; HAM-A; MADRS; CGI-S; CGI-GI; analysis of HAM-D factors; response rates (patients with 50 % improvement from baseline in HAM-D and/or MADRS and/or CGI-GI score of 1 or 2); onset time of efficacy (the visit where a 50 % improvement in HAM-D and/or MADRS was observed) | Trazodone and sertraline were equally effective in reducing depressive symptoms and promoting remission, and had similar onset times. Sleep disturbances were significantly less evident for patients taking trazodone |
Safety: AEs; overall clinical tolerability rated on a 5-point scale (very poor to very good) at final visit | ||||||
Sheehan et al [42]. (2009) | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multi-centre | DSM-IV-defined MDD (N = 412) | TzCOAD 150–375 (N = 206) Placebo (N = 206) | 6 weeks | Efficacy: HAM-D 17-item; HAM-D-17 responders (patients with 50 % improvement from baseline in HAM-D-17 total score ≤7); HAM-D-17 remitters (patients with HAM-D-17 score of ≤7) CGI-I; CGI-S; PGI-I; quality of sleep Safety: AEs; bodyweight; laboratory, physical and ECG examinations; concomitant medications | There was a statistically significant difference between trazodone and placebo in mean HAM-D-17 score (−11.4 vs. −9.3, p = 0.012) |
Sheehan et al. [43] (2009) | Standard effect size analysis of a previously published randomized study | DSM-IV-defined MDD (N = 412) | TzCOAD 150–375 (N = 206) Placebo (N = 206) | 6 weeks | Efficacy: Cohen’s d analysis on the modified ITT population to determine which items of the HAM-D 17-item and the MADRS showed the greatest improvement Safety: Not assessed | No significant interaction between improvements in the HAM-D Bech-6 core symptoms of depression and baseline MADRS reduced sleep item or early changes in the HAM-D-17 sleep disturbance factor |
4.1 Trazodone Versus Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs)
4.2 Trazodone Versus Second-Generation Antidepressants
4.3 Trazodone Prolonged-Release Formulations
4.4 Trazodone in Special Patient Populations
4.5 Tolerability of Trazodone
5 ‘Real-World’ and Long-Term Data for Trazodone
6 Use of Trazodone in Other Psychiatric Disorders
6.1 Insomnia
Reference (year) | Study design | Study population (N) | Treatments, mg/day (N) | Active treatment duration | Objective sleep assessment | Subjective sleep assessment | Results of sleep endpoints |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Primary insomnia | |||||||
Walsh et al. [83] (1998) | Randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled | DSM-III-R-defined primary insomniacs (N = 306) | Trazodone 50 (N = 100) Zolpidem 10 (N = 102) Placebo (N = 104) | 2 weeks | None | Sleep questionnaire | Week 1: both trazodone and zolpidem produced significantly shorter self-reported sleep latencies and longer self-reported sleep durations than placebo. Self-reported sleep latency was significantly shorter with zolpidem than trazodone Week 2: only zolpidem maintained significantly shorter sleep latency than placebo, and self-reported sleep duration did not vary significantly among groups |
Montgomery et al. [81] (1983) | Non-randomized, non-controlled | Middle-aged self-described ‘poor sleepers’ (N = 9) | Trazodone 150 (N = 9) | 3 weeks | PSG | VAS | Trazodone halved frequency of arousals interrupting sleep, reduced time spent in stage 1, increased duration of SWS (stages 3 + 4), reduced time spent in REM sleep. Trazodone did not change total sleep duration, or time required to fall asleep |
Zavesicka et al. [100] (2008) | Randomized | Outpatients with primary insomnia (N = 20) | Trazodone 100 nightly with CBT (N = 10) Trazodone 100 nightly without CBT (N = 10) | 8 weeks | PSG | Self-reported Insomnia Severity Index; Epworth Sleepiness Scale; HAM-A; BDI-SF | Sleep latency significantly shortened (p = 0.03), sleep efficiency increased (p = 0.004) and TST significantly prolonged (p = 0.006) with trazodone ± CBT. Combined CBT + trazodone resulted in a significant increase in SWS duration vs. CBT only (p = 0.04) |
Depression with secondary assessment of sleep function | |||||||
Ather et al. [52] (1985) | Randomized, double-blind, parallel-group | Elderly depressed inpatients and outpatients (N = 149) | Trazodone 100–300 (N = 51) Amitriptyline 25 (N = 50) Diazepam 5 (N = 48) | 6 weeks | None | VAS (quality of sleep; daytime tiredness) | No significant difference in quality of sleep or daytime tiredness among the 3 treatment groups: trazodone, amitriptyline and diazepam |
Blacker et al. [46] (1988) | Randomized, double-blind, parallel-group | Depressed outpatients (N = 227) | Trazodone 150 (N = 112) Mianserin 30–60 (N = 36) Dothiepin 75–150 (N = 35) Amitriptyline 75–100 (N = 44) | 6 weeks | None | LSEQ | All 4 treatments were associated with improvements in sleep quality and ease of getting to sleep: trazodone = dothiepin > amitriptyline > mianserin |
Botros et al. [47] (1989) | Randomized, double-blind, parallel-group | Depressed patients (N = 20) | Trazodone 50 (N = 10) Amitriptyline 75–200 (N = 10) | 3 weeks | None | St. Mary’s Hospital Sleep Questionnaire | Sleep quality improved significantly during treatment with trazodone and amitriptyline (p < 0.001 vs. baseline), but there were no differences between the two drugs. Sleep duration increased with amitriptyline but not trazodone, although the effect did not reach statistical significance |
Davey [48] (1988) | Randomized, double-blind, parallel-group | Depressed patients (N = 183) | Trazodone 50 tid (N = 87) Trazodone 150 nightly (N = 95) | 6 weeks | None | LSEQ | Trazodone 150 mg qd improved ease of getting to sleep and quality of sleep during the 1st few weeks’ treatment vs. 50 mg tid, although difference did not reach significance. Improved ease of awakening and feelings after waking were greater with trazodone 50 mg tid vs. 150 mg qd. Greater reductions in middle/delayed insomnia with trazodone 150 mg qd vs. 50 mg tid |
Debus et al. [49] (1988) | Randomized, double-blind, parallel-group | Depressed patients (N = 35) | Trazodone 50–400 tid (N = 17) Fluoxetine 20–60 tid (N = 18) | 6 weeks | None | HAM-D | Response rates were equivalent for trazodone and fluoxetine. For fluoxetine, HAM-D scores were significantly lower at weeks 1 and 2 vs. trazodone. Trazodone improved sleep significantly more than fluoxetine |
Kaynak et al. [101] (2004) | Randomized, double-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled | Depressed patients (N = 12) | Trazodone 100 (N = 6) Placebo (N = 6) | 6 weeks | PSG, PSQI | HAM-D | Trazodone significantly increased total sleep time, % stage 3/4, sleep efficiency index, sleep continuity index and decreased % stage 1, number of awakenings, stage shifts vs. baseline and PSQI score |
Moon and Davey [50] (1988) | Randomized, double-blind, parallel-group | Depressed outpatients (N = 39) | Trazodone nocte 150 (N = 19) Mianserin nocte 30–60 (N = 20) | 6 weeks | None | LSEQ | Both trazodone and mianserin provided similar changes in sleep patterns, but improvement in feelings on and after waking occurred at a faster rate with trazodone than mianserin |
Secondary insomnia (depression-associated or antidepressant-induced) | |||||||
Haffmans and Vos [88] (1999) | Randomized, double-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled | Depressed patients with brofaromine-induced insomnia (N = 7) | Trazodone 50 (N = 7) | 1 week | PSG | HAM-D, subjective sleep quality | Trazodone significantly improved deep sleep and sleep architecture. Subjectively, patients reported a better and deeper sleep |
Mashiko et al. [102] (1999) | Dose-finding study; randomized, non-controlled | Depressed patients with sleep disorders (N = 75) | Trazodone 50, 75 or 100 (N = 75) | 6 weeks | None | HAM-D; HAM-A; Self-Rating Depression Scale; Self-Rating for Sleep | Trazodone 50–100 mg/day improved sleep disorders combined with a depressive state, particularly at the 100 mg/day dosage |
Mouret et al. [103] (1988) | Non-randomized, non-controlled | Depressed inpatients (N = 10) | Trazodone 400–600 (N = 10) | 5 weeks | PSG | Spiegel and Norris sleep scales | Trazodone improved sleep in depressed patients: increased total duration of sleep and stage 2, decreased sleep latency and intra-sleep awakenings, and increased delta sleep and REM latency |
Nierenberg et al. [84] (1994) | Randomized, double-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled | Depressed patients with fluoxetine- or bupropion-induced insomnia (N = 17) | Trazodone 50–100 (N = 17) | 6.5 days (mean) | None | PSQI; YNHHDSI | Trazodone, but not placebo, improved total PSQI and YNHHDSI total sleep scores and PSQI sleep duration and YNHHDSI early morning awakening, trend toward improvement in YNHHDSI middle of the night awakenings. Subjective sleep quality and sleep latency showed trend toward improvement, but PSQI sleep efficiency and disturbances and YNHHDSI difficulty falling asleep were unaffected by trazodone. Of completers, overall sleep improvement 67 % with trazodone and 13 % with placebo |
Parrino et al. [104] (1994) | Non-randomized, non-controlled, single-blind | Dysthymic patients with chronic insomnia (N = 6) | Trazodone 50–100 (N = 6) | 6 weeks | PSG | VAS (subjective sleep quality) | No significant differences between trazodone and placebo for sleep initiation and maintenance. Significant overall improvement in stage 2 (p < 0.0005), SWS (p < 0.0001), total CAP time (p < 0.0001) and CAP rate (p < 0.0001) with trazodone vs. placebo |
Saletu-Zyhlarz et al. [79] (2001) | Single-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled | Dysthymic patients with insomnia and healthy controls (N = 22) | Trazodone 100 (N = 11) Placebo (N = 11) | 1 night | PSG | Self-Assessment of Sleep and Awakening Quality Scale | Trazodone increased SWS (stage 3/4), lengthened REM latency, decreased REM sleep and normalized PLMI vs. placebo |
Saletu-Zyhlarz et al. [78] (2002) | Single-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled | Depressed patients with insomnia and healthy controls (N = 22) | Trazodone 100 (N = 11) Placebo (N = 11) | 1 night | PSG | Self-Assessment of Sleep and Awakening Quality Scale | 100 mg trazodone increases sleep efficiency, TST, TSP and SWS (stage 3/4), decreased wakefulness during the TSP, early morning awakening and stage 2 vs. placebo. Slight increase in duration of REM sleep, and improvement in subjective sleep quality, affectivity, numerical memory and somatic complaints |
Scharf and Sachais [85] (1990) | Non-randomized, non-controlled, single-blind | Depressed patients with significant sleep disturbances (N = 6) | Trazodone 150–400 (N = 6) | 5 weeks | PSG | None | Significant improvement in sleep architecture, 44 % improvement in persistent sleep latency, increased TST and stage 4 sleep. No change in % REM; but REM latency increased 28 %. Sleep efficiency improved from 80.6 % (clinically significant insomnia) to 91.9 % (normal) |
van Bemmel et al. [105] (1992) | Non-randomized, non-controlled, single-blind | Depressed outpatients (N = 8) | Trazodone 300–400 (N = 8) | 5 weeks | PSG | None | Trazodone did not influence sleep continuity and SWS, but significantly suppressed REM sleep and increased REM sleep latency |
Sleep in healthy subjects | |||||||
Ware and Pittard [106] (1990) | Double-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled | Healthy male controls (N = 6) | Trazodone 50–200 (N = 6) | 4 nights | PSG | None | Trazodone significantly increased deep sleep without altering normal sleep architecture |
Yamadera et al. [102] (1999) | Non-randomized, non-controlled | Healthy male controls (N = 12) | Trazodone 50–100 (N = 12) | 2 nights | PSG | None | Trazodone increased SWS significantly vs. placebo |