Dietary protein and calorie intake
The provision of adequate energy and protein intake is obviously fundamental, but anorexia may make it difficult in many cases. According to the KDOQI nutritional guidelines, the initially prescribed dietary energy intake for children on PD should be the recommended daily allowance (RDA) for their chronological age [
16]. The calories derived from the glucose in the dialysate should also be considered when calculating daily total energy intake, because glucose absorption increases calorie intake by 7–10 kcal/kg per day [
47]. Dietary prescriptions exceeding the RDA for age do not seem to be associated with any better outcomes in terms of albumin levels, morbidity or mortality and are currently not justified.
The dietary energy prescription should be adjusted on the basis of the child’s response. The KDOQI guidelines emphasise the importance of providing an adequate amount of nonprotein calories [
16]: in a study of 31 dialysed children, the height velocity SDS correlated positively with total energy intake and negatively with daily protein intake [
48]. Similarly, Azocar et al. found that a high protein intake seems to have a negative effect on acid-base status, bone mineralisation and fat-free mass [
49].
As far as adequate dietary protein intake (DPI) is concerned, the possible losses of nitrogenous compounds in the dialysate should be taken into account [
35,
50]. Albumin accounts for the majority of protein losses, and free amino acids for about 20% of total losses; but other proteins are also found in the dialysate, including immunoglobulins, transferrin and opsonin. The amount of protein loss is greatly affected by a series of factors, including peritoneal membrane permeability and peritoneal surface area, with proportionately higher losses being experienced by younger (and therefore smaller) children [
50]. Protein losses of 100–300 mg/kg per day (approximately 10% of DPI) have been reported in children on PD, regardless of the treatment modality [
50]. Episodes of peritonitis can lead to much greater protein and amino acid losses.
Nitrogen balance has been used as a means of determining adequate protein intake. We found that school-aged children on PD require a DPI of 144% RDA to obtain an estimated N balance of >50 mg/kg per day, which is considered necessary for growth [
51]. Table
1 shows energy and protein intake levels recommended by the KDOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines for children undergoing chronic dialysis who are in stable clinical condition [
16].
Table 1
Recommended energy and protein intakes for children on peritoneal dialysis (PD) according to the National Kidney Foundation Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (NKF KDOQI) guidelines [
16]
Males and females | 0–0.5 | 108 | 2.9–3.0 |
0.5–1 | 98 | 2.3–2.4 |
1–3 | 102 | 1.9–2.0 |
4–6 | 90 | 1.9–2.0 |
7–10 | 70 | 1.7–1.8 |
Males | 11–14 | 55 | 1.7–1.8 |
15–18 | 45 | 1.4–1.5 |
18–21 | 40 | 1.3 |
Females | 11–14 | 47 | 1.7–1.8 |
15–18 | 40 | 1.4–1.5 |
18–21 | 38 | 1.3 |
It is well known that chronic uraemia predisposes patients to a maladaptive state of low protein turnover that may be associated with a blunted response to high metabolic needs. In the case of accelerated protein degradation due to increased metabolic needs (for example, induced by an acute illness or conditions of stress), compensatory mechanisms such as increased protein synthesis may not be adequate. It is therefore particularly important to adjust calorie and protein provision during such periods to compensate for the increased protein degradation.
If spontaneous oral intake is inadequate, specific nutritional intervention should be considered. The first dietetic intervention is generally oral nutrient supplementation. Modular carbohydrate, fat and protein components can be used in infancy to increase the caloric density of the formula; in older children, energy and protein supplementation can be provided by modular components or commercial enteral products in liquid or bar form.
Enteral nasogastric, transpyloric or gastrostomy tube feeding should be considered in patients who fail to meet their nutritional goals by the oral route alone. There are conflicting results regarding the effectiveness of enteral supplementation in improving growth and nutrition. Most studies have reported an increase of height and mainly weight during enteral nutrition [
52‐
54]. Conley et al. reported catch-up growth in 5/10 dialysed infants tube fed with 156–210% of the protein RDA and 108–134% of the energy RDA [
52]. Ledermann et al. used a 30-month enteral feeding program to treat 35 children with chronic renal failure/ESRD (six on peritoneal dialysis) and concluded that long-term enteral feeding prevents or reverses weight loss and growth retardation, with significant catch-up growth if started before the age of 2 years [
53]. Ramage et al. used gastrostomy feeding to treat 15 infants and older children on PD and concluded that it facilitates weight gain and arrests the decline in height SDS that is usually observed in infants with ESRD [
54]. On the contrary, the results of a North American Pediatric Renal Trials and Collaborative Studies (NAPRTCS) survey of the effectiveness of supplemental feeding in 174 children aged younger than 6 years at the start of dialysis found no differences in weight or height SDS after 30 days, 6 months or 1 year of dialysis between the children who received supplementary feeds and those who did not [
55]. However, limitations of registry studies should be taken into account when interpreting such data.
When comparing the different techniques of enteral nutrition, it is necessary to consider the advantages and limitations of each one. Nasogastric tubes are well tolerated and easy to insert, but their use may be complicated by recurrent episodes of emesis and the need for frequent tube replacement. Gastrostomy tubes or buttons are hidden beneath clothing but are also associated with emesis, exit-site infections, leakage and peritonitis [
56]. Gastrojejunostomy should be limited to children undergoing enteral tube feeding when severe gastroesophageal reflux is not resolved by medical therapy. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) insertion following PD initiation carries a high risk for fungal peritonitis and potential PD failure. In such cases, open placement should be considered [
57,
58]. Parents should be reassured that transition from a gastrostomy button to oral feeding following renal transplantation is generally successful without any significant delay.
Intraperitoneal nutritional supplementation
Intraperitoneal amino acid supplementation is another option for children on PD, although it has been used in only a few paediatric patients and for short periods of time [
59‐
61]. A Canadian randomised crossover study treated seven children for 3 months each with an amino-acid-supplemented dialysis solution and a standard dextrose solution and found no statistically significant between-period differences in terms of anthropometric parameters, total body nitrogen or questionnaire-based appetite scores [
62]. Brem et al. reported the case of a 5-year-old PD patient treated for 1 year with a balanced 1.1% amino acid solution, whose serum albumin levels normalised and who showed significant increases in appetite, weight and linear growth velocity [
63]. Some benefits in nutritional status, albumin levels and survival have been reported in adults on PD receiving intraperitoneal amino acids [
64,
65]. Based on these experiences, it seems advisable to give PD-treated children with severe malnutrition a trial with an amino-acid-based PD solution together with the other nutritional measures. However, more studies are needed to better clarify the role of intraperitoneal amino acid supplementation in improving the nutritional status of children on PD.
Pharmacological intervention
The use of dietary and pharmacological interventions to correct metabolic abnormalities (particularly acidosis, electrolyte abnormalities, anaemia and hyperparathyroidism) and treat complications such as infections and hypertension is very important in preventing and treating cachexia. Given the important role of drugs in controlling the blood chemistry of children with ESRD and the complications of uraemia mentioned above, particular monitoring is required to ensure the correct administration and timing of medications. Noncompliance with drug prescription is a common problem in chronic dialysis patients, particularly adolescents, and must be tackled by a collaborative effort of the multidisciplinary team [
66]. The side effects of many drugs on the gastrointestinal tract should be taken into account, as they may negatively influence oral food intake.
Recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) is one option to increase height velocity in children with CKD, being utilised in about 20–30% of children on dialysis, but its role in preserving lean body mass and improving whole-body protein homeostasis is not known in detail. Stefanidis showed an improvement in nitrogen balance and a significant increase in serum creatinine and creatinine excretion (with stable weekly creatinine clearance) in nine children on PD treated with rhGH, as well as an improvement in MAMC, the pattern of plasma amino acids and serum albumin [
67]. A small number of studies of uremic adults suggest that rhGH is associated with a strong and sustained anabolic reaction and has a beneficial effect on nutritional status. On the basis of these data, the use of rhGH is advisable in selected children on PD with cachexia with the aim of improving not only growth but also nutritional status.
As regards other specific drugs for the treatment of protein-calorie malnutrition, megestrol acetate is the most extensively studied appetite stimulant. This drug has been shown to improve appetite and nutritional status in adults on hemodialysis, but the treatment may be risky and must be closely monitored [
68,
69]. Efficacy and safety of nandrolone decanoate, an androgen derivative, have also been investigated in adults with CKD. Although an anabolic effect on lean body mass has been demonstrated, more studies are needed to confirm such observation [
70]. To the best of our knowledge, no studies tested these drugs in paediatrics.
Given the association between proinflammatory cytokines and cachexia in patients on dialysis, various anti-inflammatory strategies have been proposed. It is worth noting, for example, that some drugs commonly used in patients with CKD, such as statins and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, possess an anti-inflammatory effect.
Given our ever-increasing knowledge about the pathogenesis of cachexia in patients with CKD, it can be expected that new drugs will be designed with the aim of specifically counteracting the molecular abnormalities (hormones, cytokines, neuropeptides) involved in nutritional status impairment. New and promising therapeutic interventions could be subcutaneous ghrelin administration and melanocortin receptor antagonists.
Dialysis dose and maintenance of residual renal function
A close relationship has been found between dialysis dose and nutritional status, and that dialysis prescription (dialysis dose, dialysis solutions, ultrafiltration) and residual renal function should be monitored at least monthly. Peritoneal clearance should be regularly assessed by means of 24-h fluid collections and peritoneal membrane function by means of the peritoneal equilibration test. Kt/V and/or creatinine clearance data should be compared with the dialysis dose requirements laid down in the KDOQI guidelines [
71], but they should only be used as indicators of prescription adequacy, because other clinical aspects may be more informative, such as control of uremic complications and growth itself [
72]. The possibility of improving nutritional status by increasing the dialysis dose is still being debated, as there have been conflicting results concerning the relationship between the parameters of dialysis adequacy and nutritional indices in both adult and paediatric patients. The very definition of optimal dialysis is still controversial, but what is certain is that a PD dose of at least that recommended by the KDOQI guidelines is needed [
73]. On the basis of these findings, the search for optimal dialysis dosing and nutritional intake is warranted.