Despite the availability of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs), anaemia remains a significant problem worldwide. An analysis from the International Pediatric Peritoneal Dialysis Network has shown that of 1,394 paediatric patients undergoing peritoneal dialysis from 30 countries, 25 % of patients had haemoglobin levels below target (<10 g/dl or <9.5 g/dl in children older or younger than 2 years respectively) despite the prescription of ESAs to 92 % of patients [
10]. These children are vulnerable to developing a blood requirement during acute illness; thus, optimisation of ESA therapy may at least be able to prevent blood transfusion in these patients. However, there remain situations when blood transfusions cannot be avoided: for example, infants on haemodialysis who need lines priming with blood; the child with late presentation in chronic kidney disease (CKD) stage 5; in emergencies; or during surgical procedures.
The sensitisation risk from red cell transfusions is often underestimated owing to the popular misconception that erythrocytes (being enucleated cells) do not express HLA molecules. In actual fact, erythrocytes express low levels of HLA class I molecules, i.e. 100–2,000 per cell (compared to 1−2 × 10
5 on leukocytes) [
11,
12]. However, because of the large numbers of erythrocytes, HLA sensitisation would be expected to occur. Several studies in the adult literature using contemporary solid phase assay methods have confirmed that blood transfusions induce or reactivate HLA allo-immunisation [
13‐
16]. The risk of sensitisation is proportional to prior sensitisation events. Therefore, children with failed transplants are at the highest risk of sensitisation, followed by those who have received multiple transfusions [
11,
17]. In a study of male patients awaiting their first transplants, transfusion with leukodepleted red blood cells was associated with a relative risk of 4.1 of developing HLA antibodies compared with non-transfused patients [
15]. In another study of patients on dialysis, transfused patients had an adjusted odds ratio of 9.6, even when applying a high positive criterion of MFI >10,000. The risk remained even when patients with pro-inflammatory events were excluded [
16]. The risk of sensitisation in paediatrics is less well characterised, although it is reported that children are more likely to mount an alloimmune response than adults [
18]. Infants are a special group as they are less likely to develop allo-sensitisation, even though they need blood priming of haemodialysis lines [
19]. In our centre, 1 in 7 (16 %) developed HLA antibodies despite an average of 7.5 adult units per individual [
19]. Some HLA antigens may be more immunogenic than others, for example, HLA-A3, A66, and B18 [
20,
21]. In summary, red cells pose a significant risk of HLA sensitisation, which is stratified according to prior sensitisation events.
Other blood products that contain leukocytes or platelets are also immunogenic, and are often needed alongside blood in the sick child. Platelets in particular contain 81,587 (±20,016) HLA molecules per cell [
22]. Platelet refractoriness is a recognised complication of multiple platelet transfusions in the setting of malignancies and often requires treatment with HLA-matched platelets. The investigation of HLA sensitisation in CKD patients who do not have such high platelet requirements has not been published. Leukocytes, white cell fragments, DNA, HLA peptides, cell debris and pro-inflammatory cytokines that accumulate in the fluid suspension of the blood product during storage can all potentially induce sensitisation with transfusion [
23,
24].