Introduction
Specific fetal exposures
Fetal undernutrition
Maternal anthropometrics, maternal diet and placenta function
Maternal anthropometric characteristic during pregnancy | Cardiovascular outcome |
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Maternal anthropometric
| |
Short stature | Increased death rates from coronary heart disease |
Low triceps skin fold thickness | Increased blood pressure |
High weight gain during pregnancy | Increased left ventricular mass |
Maternal diet
| |
Total energy intake | Increased risk and earlier onset coronary artery disease |
Low protein intake | Increased blood pressure |
Low calcium intake | Increased blood pressure |
Low folate intake | Endothelial dysfunction |
Maternal smoking during pregnancy
Genetic susceptibility
First author (year) | Main finding: effect on pre- and postnatal growth | Main finding: effect on risk factors type 2 diabetes | Main finding: effect on risk factors cardiovascular disease |
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PPARγ2 (rs 1801282)
| |||
Masud and Ye [209] | Pro12Ala genotype is associated with higher BMI and obesity | ||
Bennett et al. [59] | Pro12Ala genotype is not associated with birth weight. | ||
Pfab et al. [60] | Pro12Ala genotype is not associated with intra-uterine growth, size at birth and insulin resistance | Pro12Ala genotype is not associated with intra-uterine growth, size at birth and insulin resistance | |
Mook-Kanamori et al. [61] | Ala12 allele is associated with an increased growth rate in early life. This effect may be influenced by the duration of breastfeeding | Ala12 allele is associated with an increased growth rate in early life. This effect may be influenced by the duration of breastfeeding | |
Eriksson et al. [63] | Ala12 allele and a lower birth weight is associated with risk of increased lipid levels | Ala12 allele and a lower birth weight is associated with risk of increased lipid levels | |
Yliharsila et al. [64] | Pro12Pro genotype modifies the association between low birth weight and hypertension | Pro12Pro genotype modifies the association between low birth weight and hypertension | |
GR gene (NR3C1)
| |||
van Rossum et al. [210] | ER22/23EK polymorphism is associated with decreased sensitivity to glucocorticoids and low insulin levels | ER22/23EK polymorphism is associated with decreased sensitivity to glucocorticoids and low cholesterol levels | |
Finken et al. [211] | ER22/23EK polymorphism is associated with a protecting effect against postnatal growth failure and insulin resistance after preterm birth | ER22/23EK polymorphism is associated with a protecting effect against postnatal growth failure and insulin resistance after preterm birth | |
van Rossum et al. [212] | G-allele of the Bcl-I polymorphism is associated with increased glucocorticoid sensitivity and lower BMI | ||
Rosmond et al. [213] | G-allele of the Bcl-I polymorphism is associated with increased abdominal obesity and higher cortisol levels in GG-carriers compared to CC-carriers | ||
Buemann et al. [214] | G-allele of the Bcl-I polymorphism is associated with increased abdominal visceral fat in lean GG-carriers, but not in overweight GG-carriers | ||
Huizenga et al. [215] | N363S polymorphism is associated with increased glucocorticoid sensitivity, increased insulin response to Dexamethasone and increased BMI | ||
Watt et al. [216] | Homozygosity for the G-allele of the Bcl-I polymorphism was more frequent in the group with personal and parental hypertension | ||
Di Blasio et al. [217] | Carrying both the N363S and the Bcl-I polymorphism is associated with higher systolic and diastolic blood pressure and serum cholesterol levels | ||
Rosmond et al. [218] | N363S polymorphism is not associated with BMI or sensitivity to glucocorticoids | ||
Lin et al. [219] | N363S polymorphism is associated with obesity and overweight, but not with type 2 diabetes | N363S polymorphism is not associated with hypertension | |
Rosmond et al. [220] | TthIII polymorphism is associated with diurnal cortisol levels, but not with any anthropometric or glucose related phenotype | ||
van den Akker et al. [68] | GR-9β polymorphism is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease | ||
Geelhoed et al. [69] | GR gene polymorphisms are not associated with growth in fetal and early postnatal life, neither to size at birth or catch-up growth until the age of 2 years | GR gene polymorphisms are not associated with growth in fetal and early postnatal life, neither to size at birth or catch-up growth until the age of 2 years | |
Geelhoed et al. [52] | GR-9β polymorphism is associated with increased systolic blood pressure and increased left ventricular mass at the age of 2 years |