nach oben

Neuropsychology Review

Erschienen in:

01.06.2015 | Review

Decision Making Under Objective Risk Conditions–a Review of Cognitive and Emotional Correlates, Strategies, Feedback Processing, and External Influences

verfasst von: Johannes Schiebener, Matthias Brand

Erschienen in: Neuropsychology Review | Ausgabe 2/2015

Einloggen, um Zugang zu erhalten

Abstract

While making decisions under objective risk conditions, the probabilities of the consequences of the available options are either provided or calculable. Brand et al. (Neural Networks 19:1266–1276, 2006) introduced a model describing the neuro-cognitive processes involved in such decisions. In this model, executive functions associated with activity in the fronto-striatal loop are important for developing and applying decision-making strategies, and for verifying, adapting, or revising strategies according to feedback. Emotional rewards and punishments learned from such feedback accompany these processes. In this literature review, we found support for the role of executive functions, but also found evidence for the importance of further cognitive abilities in decision making. Moreover, in addition to reflective processing (driven by cognition), decisions can be guided by impulsive processing (driven by anticipation of emotional reward and punishment). Reflective and impulsive processing may interact during decision making, affecting the evaluation of available options, as both processes are affected by feedback. Decision-making processes are furthermore modulated by individual attributes (e.g., age), and external influences (e.g., stressors). Accordingly, we suggest a revised model of decision making under objective risk conditions.

Ackerman, J. P., McBee-Strayer, S. M., Mendoza, K., Stevens, J., Sheftall, A. H., Campo, J. V., et al. (2014). Risk-sensitive decision-making deficit in adolescent suicide attempters. Journal of Child Adolescend Psychopharmacology, 25, 109–113. doi:10.1089/cap.2014.0041.

Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., Damasio, H., & Damasio, A. (1994). Impaired recognition of emotion in facial expressions following bilateral damage to the human amygdala. Nature, 372, 669–672. doi:10.1038/372669a0.PubMed

Alvarez, J. A., & Emory, E. (2006). Executive function and the frontal lobes: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology Review, 16, 17–42. doi:10.1007/s11065-006-9002-x.PubMed

Anderson, A. K., & Phelps, E. A. (2001). Lesions of the human amygdala impair enhanced perception of emotionally salient events. Nature, 411, 305–309. doi:10.1038/35077083.PubMed

Anderson, S. W., Damasio, H., Jones, R. D., & Tranel, D. (1991). Wisconsin card sorting test performance as a measure of frontal lobe damage. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 13, 909–922. doi:10.1080/01688639108405107.PubMed

Bach, D. R., & Dolan, R. J. (2012). Knowing how much you don't know: a neural organization of uncertainty estimates. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13, 572–586. doi:10.1038/nrn3289.PubMed

Bach, D. R., Hulme, O., Penny, W. D., & Dolan, R. J. (2011). The known unknowns: neural representation of second-order uncertainty, and ambiguity. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 4811–4820. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1452-10.2011.

Baddeley, A. D. (2003). Working memory: looking back and looking forward. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4, 829–839. doi:10.1038/nrn1201.PubMed

Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G. A. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (pp. 47–89). New York.

Bagneux, V., Bollon, T., & Dantzer, C. (2012). Do (un)certainty appraisal tendencies reverse the influence of emotions on risk taking in sequential tasks? Cognition and Emotion, 26, 568–576. doi:10.1080/02699931.2011.602237.PubMed

Baumann, J., & DeSteno, D. (2012). Context explains divergent effects of anger on risk taking. Emotion, 12, 1196–1199. doi:10.1037/a0029788.PubMed

Bayard, S., Raffard, S., & Gely-Nargeot, M.-C. (2011). Do facets of self-reported impulsivity predict decision-making under ambiguity and risk? Evidence from a community sample. Psychiatry Research, 190, 322–326. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2011.06.013.PubMed

Bayard, S., Langenier, M. C., & Dauvilliers, Y. (2013). Decision-making, reward-seeking behaviors and dopamine agonist therapy in restless legs syndrome. Sleep, 36, 1501–1507. doi:10.5665/sleep.3044.PubMedCentralPubMed

Bechara, A. (2004). The role of emotion in decision-making: evidence from neurological patients with orbitofrontal damage. Brain and Cognition, 55, 30–40.PubMed

Bechara, A. (2005). Decision making, impulse control and loss of willpower to resist drugs: a neurocognitive perspective. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 1458–1463. doi:10.1038/nn1584.PubMed

Bechara, A. (2007). Iowa gambling task professional manual. Lutz: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Bechara, A., & Damasio, A. R. (2005). The somatic marker hypothesis: a neural theory of economic decision. Games and Economic Behavior, 52, 336–372. doi:10.1016/j.geb.2004.06.010.

Bechara, A., Damasio, A. R., Damasio, H., & Anderson, S. W. (1994). Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition, 50, 7–15. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(94)90018-3.PubMed

Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (1997). Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy. Science, 275, 1293–1295. doi:10.1126/science.275.5304.1293.PubMed

Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Damasio, A. R., & Lee, G. P. (1999). Different contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-making. Journal of Neuroscience, 19, 5473–5481.PubMed

Bechara, A., Damasio, H., & Damasio, A. R. (2000a). Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 10, 295–307.PubMed

Bechara, A., Tranel, D., & Damasio, H. (2000b). Characterization of the decision-making deficit of patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions. Brain, 123, 2189–2202. doi:10.1093/brain/123.11.2189.PubMed

Berg, E. A. (1948). A simple objective technique for measuring flexibility in thinking. Journal of General Psychology, 39, 15–22. doi:10.1080/00221309.1948.9918159.PubMed

Blanchette, I., & Richards, A. (2010). The influence of affect on higher level cognition: a review of research on interpretation, judgement, decision making and reasoning. Cognition and Emotion, 24, 561–595. doi:10.1080/02699930903132496.

Bless, H., & Schwarz, N. (1999). In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Sufficient and necessary conditions in dual-process models: The case of mood and information processing (pp. 423–440). New York: Guilford.

Bolla, K. I., Eldreth, D. A., Matochik, J. A., & Cadet, J. L. (2004). Sex-related differences in a gambling task and its neurological correlates. Cerebral Cortex, 14, 1226–1232. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhh083.PubMed

Boller, J. K., Barbe, M. T., Pauls, K. A. M., Reck, C., Brand, M., Maier, F., et al. (2014). Decision-making under risk is improved by both dopaminergic medication and subthalamic stimulation in Parkinson’s disease. Experimental Neurology, 254, 70–77. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2014.01.005.PubMed

Brand, M. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. Journal of Neuropsychology, 2, 431–443. doi:10.1348/174866407x220607.PubMed

Brand, M., & Altstötter-Gleich, C. (2008). Personality and decision-making in laboratory gambling tasks - evidence for a relationship between deciding advantageously under risk conditions and perfectionism. Personality and Individual Differences, 45, 226–231.

Brand, M., & Schiebener, J. (2013). Interactions of age and cognitive functions in predicting decision making under risky conditions over the life span. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 35, 9–23. doi:10.1080/13803395.2012.740000.PubMed

Brand, M., Kalbe, E., Kracht, L. W., Riebel, U., Munch, J., Kessler, J., et al. (2004a). Organic and psychogenic factors leading to executive dysfunctions in a patient suffering from surgery of a colloid cyst of the Foramen of Monro. Neurocase, 10, 420–425. doi:10.1080/13554790490894002.PubMed

Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., et al. (2004b). Decision-making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Behavioural Neurology, 15, 77–85. doi:10.1155/2004/578354.PubMed

Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005a). Decision-making deficits of Korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: associations with executive functions. Neuropsychology, 19, 267–277. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267.PubMed

Brand, M., Kalbe, E., Labudda, K., Fujiwara, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005b). Decision-making impairments in patients with pathological gambling. Psychiatry Research, 133, 91–99.PubMed

Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. Neural Networks, 19, 1266–1276. doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001.PubMed

Brand, M., Franke-Sievert, C., Jacoby, G. E., Markowitsch, H. J., & Tuschen-Caffier, B. (2007a). Neuropsychological correlates of decision making in patients with bulimia nervosa. Neuropsychology, 21, 742–750. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.21.6.742.PubMed

Brand, M., Grabenhorst, F., Starcke, K., Vandekerckhove, M. M. P., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2007b). Role of the amygdala in decisions under ambiguity and decisions under risk: evidence from patients with Urbach-Wiethe disease. Neuropsychologia, 45, 1305–1317. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.09.021.PubMed

Brand, M., Recknor, E. C., Grabenhorst, F., & Bechara, A. (2007c). Decisions under ambiguity and decisions under risk: correlations with executive functions and comparisons of two different gambling tasks with implicit and explicit rules. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 29, 86–99. doi:10.1080/13803390500507196.PubMed

Brand, M., Heinze, K., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2008). The role of strategies in deciding advantageously in ambiguous and risky situations. Cognitive Processing, 9, 159–173. doi:10.1007/s10339-008-0204-4.PubMed

Brand, M., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009a). Decision making with and without feedback: the role of intelligence, strategies, executive functions, and cognitive styles. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 31, 984–998. doi:10.1080/13803390902776860.PubMed

Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N., Markowitsch, H. J., et al. (2009b). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. Brain and Cognition, 69, 279–290. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003.PubMed

Brand, M., Schiebener, J., Pertl, M.-T., & Delazer, M. (2014). Know the risk, take the win: how executive functions and probability processing influence advantageous decision making under risk conditions. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 36, 914–929. doi:10.1080/13803395.2014.955783.PubMed

Brevers, D., Cleeremans, A., Goudriaan, A. E., Bechara, A., Kornreich, C., Verbanck, P., et al. (2012). Decision making under ambiguity but not under risk is related to problem gambling severity. Psychiatry Research, 200, 568–574. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2012.03.053.PubMed

Brevers, D., Bechara, A., Cleeremans, A., & Noel, X. (2013). Iowa gambling task (IGT): twenty aears after - gambling disorder and IGT. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 665. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00665.PubMedCentralPubMed

Buckert, M., Schwieren, C., Kudielka, B. M., & Fiebach, C. J. (2014). Acute stress affects risk taking but not ambiguity aversion. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 8, 82. doi:10.3389/fnins.2014.00082.PubMedCentralPubMed

Buelow, M. T. (2014). Predicting performance on the Columbia Card Task effects of personality characteristics, mood, and executive functions. Assessment. doi:10.1177/1073191114539383.PubMed

Buelow, M. T., & Suhr, J. A. (2009). Construct validity of the Iowa Gambling Task. Neuropsychology Review, 19, 102–114.

Byrnes, J. P., Miller, D. C., & Schafer, W. D. (1999). Gender differences in risk taking: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 367–383. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.367.

Chen, Y., Wang, J., Kirk, R. M., Pethtel, O. L., & Kiefner, A. E. (2014). Age differences in adaptive decision making: the role of numeracy. Educational Gerontology, 40, 825–833. doi:10.1080/03601277.2014.900263.PubMedCentralPubMed

Clark, L., & Manes, F. (2004). Social and emotional decision-making following frontal lobe injury. Neurocase, 10, 398–403.PubMed

Clore, G. L., Schwarz, N., & Conway, M. A. (1994). Affective causes and consequences of social information processing. In R. S. Wyer Jr. & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition, second edition: Volume 1: Basic processes (Vol. 1, pp. 323–417). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

Cokely, E. T., & Kelley, C. M. (2009). Cognitive abilities and superior decision making under risk: a protocol analysis and process model evaluation. Judgment and Decision Making, 4, 20–33. doi:10.1016/j.jbankfin.2009.04.001.

Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1980). Influence of extraversion and neuroticism on subjective well-being: happy and unhappy people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 668–678. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.38.4.668.PubMed

Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes’ error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York: Grosset/Putnam.

Damasio, A. R., Everitt, B. J., & Bishop, D. (1996). The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex [and discussion]. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of LondonSeries B: Biological Sciences, 351, 1413–1420. doi:10.1098/rstb.1996.0125.

De Vries, M., Holland, R. W., & Witteman, C. L. M. (2008a). Fitting decisions: mood and intuitive versus deliberative decision strategies. Cognition and Emotion, 22, 931–943. doi:10.1080/02699930701552580.

De Vries, M., Holland, R. W., & Witteman, C. L. M. (2008b). In the winning mood: affect in the Iowa Gambling Task. Judgment and Decision Making, 3, 42–50.

Deakin, J., Aitken, M., Robbins, T., & Sahakian, B. J. (2004). Risk taking during decision-making in normal volunteers changes with age. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 10, 590–598.PubMed

Delazer, M., Sinz, H., Zamarian, L., & Benke, T. (2007). Decision-making with explicit and stable rules in mild Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychologia, 45, 1632–1641. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.01.006.PubMed

Denes-Raj, V., & Epstein, S. (1994). Conflict between intuitive and rational processing: when people behave against their better judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 819–829.PubMed

Diamond, A. (2002). In D. T. Stuss & R. T. Knight (Eds.), Normal development of prefrontal cortex from birth to young adulthood: Cognitive functions, anatomy, and biochemistry (pp. 466–503). New York: Oxford University Press.

Dittrich, W. H., & Johansen, T. (2013). Cognitive deficits of executive functions and decision-making in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 54, 393–400. doi:10.1111/sjop.12066.PubMed

Dolcos, F., & McCarthy, G. (2006). Brain systems mediating cognitive interference by emotional distraction. The Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 2072–2079.PubMed

Donati, M. A., Panno, A., & Chiesi, F. (2014). A mediation model to explain decision making under conditions of risk among adolescents: the role of fluid intelligence and probabilistic reasoning. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 36, 588–595. doi:10.1080/13803395.2014.918091.PubMed

Drechsler, R., Rizzo, P., & Steinhausen, H. C. C. (2008). Decision-making on an explicit risk-taking task in preadolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Neural Transmission, 115, 201–209. doi:10.1007/s00702-007-0814-5.PubMed

Engelmann, J. B., Capra, C. M., Noussair, C., & Berns, G. S. (2009). Expert financial advice neurobiologically “Offloads” financial decision-making under risk. PLoS ONE, 4, e4957. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004957.PubMedCentralPubMed

Epstein, S. (2003). Cognitive experiential self theory of personality. In T. Millon & M. J. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of psychology (5th ed., pp. 159–184). Hoboken: Wiley.

Epstein, L. G., & Wang, T. (1994). Intertemporal asset pricing under knightian uncertainty. Econometrica, 62, 283–322. doi:10.2307/2951614.

Epstein, S., Pacini, R., Denes-Raj, V., & Heier, H. (1996). Individual differences in intuitive-experiential and analytical-rational thinking styles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 390–405. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.390.PubMed

Euteneuer, F., Schaefer, F., Stuermer, R., Boucsein, W., Timmermann, L., Barbe, M. T., et al. (2009). Dissociation of decision-making under ambiguity and decision-making under risk in patients with Parkinson’s disease: a neuropsychological and psychophysiological study. Neuropsychologia, 47, 2882–2890. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.06.014.PubMed

Evans, J. S. B. T. (2003). In two minds: dual-process accounts of reasoning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 454–459. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2003.08.012.

Evans, J. S. B. T. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 255–278. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093629.PubMed

Figner, B., & Murphy, R. O. (2011). Using skin conductance in judgment and decision making research. In M. Schulte-Mecklenbeck, A. Kuehberger, & R. Ranyard (Eds.), A handbook of process tracing methods for decision research (pp. 163–184). New York: Psychology Press.

Figner, B., & Weber, E. U. (2011). Who takes risks when and why?: Determinants of risk taking. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 211–216. doi:10.1177/0963721411415790.

Figner, B., Mackinlay, R. J., Wilkening, F., & Weber, E. U. (2009). Affective and deliberative processes in risky choice: age differences in risk taking in the Columbia card task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 709–730. doi:10.1037/a0014983.PubMed

Finucane, M. L., & Lees, N. B. (2005). Decision-making competence of older adults: Models and methods. In Workshop on decision making needs of older adults, the National Academies. Washington, D. C.

Finucane, M. L., Mertz, C. K., Slovic, P., & Schmidt, E. S. (2005). Task complexity and older adults’ decision-making competence. Psychology and Aging, 20, 71–84.PubMed

Fjell, A. M., Westlye, L. T., Amlien, I., Espeseth, T., Reinvang, I., Raz, N., et al. (2009). High consistency of regional cortical thinning in aging across multiple samples. Cerebral Cortex. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn232.PubMedCentral

Friedman, M., & Savage, L. J. (1948). The utility analysis of choices involving risk. Journal of Political Economy, 56, 279–304. doi:10.1086/256692.

Gathmann, B., Pawlikowski, M., Schöler, T., & Brand, M. (2014a). Performing a secondary executive task with affective stimuli interferes with decision making under risk conditions. Cognitive Processing, 15, 113–126. doi:10.1007/s10339-013-0584-y.PubMed

Gathmann, B., Schulte, F. P., Maderwald, S., Pawlikowski, M., Starcke, K., Schäfer, L. C., et al. (2014b). Stress and decision making: neural correlates of the interaction between stress, executive functions, and decision making under risk. Experimental Brain Research. doi:10.1007/s00221-013-3808-6.PubMed

Gleichgerrcht, E., Ibanez, A., Roca, M., Torralva, T., & Manes, F. (2010). Decision making cognition in neurodegenerative diseases. Nature Reviews Neurology, 6, 611–623. doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2010.148.PubMed

Grant, J. E., Derbyshire, K., Leppink, E., & Chamberlain, S. R. (2014). Suicidality in non-treatment seeking young adults with subsyndromal gambling disorder. Psychiatric Quarterly. doi:10.1007/s11126-014-9312-8.PubMed

Guo, Z., Chen, J., Liu, S., Li, Y., Sun, B., & Gao, Z. (2013). Brain areas activated by uncertain reward-based decision-making in healthy volunteers. Neural Regeneration Research, 8, 3344–3352. doi:10.3969/j.issn. 1673-5374.2013.35.009.PubMedCentralPubMed

Heilman, R. M., Crişan, L. G., Houser, D., Miclea, M., & Miu, A. C. (2010). Emotion regulation and decision making under risk and uncertainty. Emotion, 10, 257–265. doi:10.1037/a0018489.PubMed

Henninger, D. E., Madden, D. J., & Huettel, S. A. (2010). Processing speed and memory mediate age-related differences in decision making. Psychology and Aging, 25, 262–270. doi:10.1037/a0019096.PubMedCentralPubMed

Hines, E. A., & Brown, G. E. (1936). The cold pressor test for measuring the reactibility of the blood pressure: data concerning 571 normal and hypertensive subjects. American Heart Journal, 11, 1–9. doi:10.1016/s0002-8703(36)90370-8.

Hittmair-Delazer, M., Sailer, U., & Benke, T. (1995). Impaired arithmetic facts but intact conceptual knowledge–a single-case study of dyscalculia. Cortex, 31, 139–147. doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(13)80112-8.

Hsu, M., Bhatt, M., Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., & Camerer, C. F. (2005). Neural systems responding to degrees of uncertainty in human decision-making. Science, 310, 1680–1683. doi:10.1126/science.1115327.PubMed

Hsu, M., Krajbich, I., Zhao, C., & Camerer, C. F. (2009). Neural response to reward anticipation under risk is nonlinear in probabilities. The Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 2231–2237. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI. 5296-08.2009.PubMed

Huang, Y., Wood, S., Berger, D., & Hanoch, Y. (2013). Risky choice in younger versus older adults: affective context matters. Judgment and Decision Making, 8, 179–187.

Imhoff, R., Schmidt, A. F., & Gerstenberg, F. (2013). Exploring the interplay of trait self-control and ego depletion: empirical evidence for ironic effects. European Journal of Personality, 28, 413–424. doi:10.1002/per.1899.

Jasper, J. D., Bhattacharya, C., Levin, I. P., Jones, L., & Bossard, E. (2012). Numeracy as a predictor of adaptive risky decision making. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 26, 164–173. doi:10.1002/bdm.1748.

Jurado, M., & Rosselli, M. (2007). The elusive nature of executive functions: a review of our current understanding. Neuropsychology Review, 17, 213–233. doi:10.1007/s11065-007-9040-z.PubMed

Kahneman, D. (2003). A perspective on judgment and choice: mapping bounded rationality. American Psychologist, 58, 697–720. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.58.9.697.PubMed

Keeney, R. L., & Raiffa, H. (1976). Decision making with multiple objectives II. European Journal of Operational Research, 2007, 1–19.

Kensinger, E. A., & Corkin, S. (2003). Effect of negative emotional content on working memory and long-term memory. Emotion, 3, 378–393. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.3.4.378.PubMed

Kim, D.-Y., & Lee, J.-H. (2011). Effects of the BAS and BIS on decision-making in a gambling task. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 1131–1135. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.041.

Kim, H. W., Kang, J. I., Namkoong, K., Jhung, K., Ha, R. Y., & Kim, S. J. (2015). Further evidence of a dissociation between decision-making under ambiguity and decision-making under risk in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 176, 118–124. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.01.060.PubMed

Knight, F. H. (1921). Risk, uncertainty, and profit. Boston: Hart, Schaffner & Marx; Houghton Mifflin Co.

Kräplin, A., Dshemuchadse, M., Behrendt, S., Scherbaum, S., Goschke, T., & Bühringer, G. (2014). Dysfunctional decision-making in pathological gambling: pattern specificity and the role of impulsivity. Psychiatry Research, 215, 675–682. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.12.041.PubMed

Kudielka, B. M., Hellhammer, D. H., & Wüst, S. (2009). Why do we respond so differently? Reviewing determinants of human salivary cortisol responses to challenge. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 2–18. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.10.004.PubMed

Kühn, S., Romanowski, A., Schilling, C., Lorenz, R., Mörsen, C., Seiferth, N., et al. (2011). The neural basis of video gaming. Translational Psychiatry, 1, e35. doi:10.1038/tp.2011.53.

Labudda, K., Woermann, F. G., Mertens, M., Pohlmann-Eden, B., Markowitsch, H. J., & Brand, M. (2008). Neural correlates of decision making with explicit information about probabilities and incentives in elderly healthy subjects. Experimental Brain Research, 187, 641–650.PubMed

Lejuez, C. W., Read, J. P., Kahler, C. W., Richards, J. B., Ramsey, S. E., Stuart, G. L., et al. (2002). Evaluation of a behavioral measure of risk-taking: the balloon analogue risk task (BART). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8, 75–84. doi:10.1037//1076-898x.8.2.75.PubMed

Lerner, J. S., & Keltner, D. (2000). Beyond valence: toward a model of emotion-specific influences on judgement and choice. Cognition and Emotion, 14, 473–493. doi:10.1080/026999300402763.

Lerner, J. S., & Keltner, D. (2001). Fear, anger, and risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 146–159. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.1.146.PubMed

Lerner, J. S., Han, S., & Keltner, D. (2007). Feelings and consumer decision making: extending the appraisal-tendency framework. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17, 181–187. doi:10.1016/S1057-7408(07)70027-X.

Levin, I. P., & Hart, S. S. (2003). Risk preferences in young children: early evidence of individual differences in reaction to potential gains and losses. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 16, 397–413. doi:10.1002/bdm.453.

Levin, I. P., Xue, G., Weller, J. A., Reimann, M., Lauriola, M., & Bechara, A. (2012). A neuropsychological approach to understanding risk-taking for potential gains and losses. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 6, 15. doi:10.3389/fnins.2012.00015.PubMedCentralPubMed

Levin, I. P., Bossard, E. A., Gaeth, G. J., & Yan, H. (2014). The combined role of task, child’s age and individual differences in understanding decision processes. Judgement and Decision Making, 9, 274–286.

Lighthall, N. R., Mather, M., & Gorlick, M. A. (2009). Acute stress increases sex differences in risk seeking in the balloon analogue risk task. PLoS ONE, 4, e6002. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006002.PubMedCentralPubMed

Lighthall, N. R., Sakaki, M., Vasunilashorn, S., Nga, L., Somayajula, S., Chen, E. Y., et al. (2012). Gender differences in reward-related decision processing under stress. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7, 476–484. doi:10.1093/scan/nsr026.PubMedCentralPubMed

Lustig, C., Shah, P., Seidler, R., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. A. (2009). Aging, training, and the brain: a review and future directions. Neuropsychology Review, 19, 504–522. doi:10.1007/s11065-009-9119-9.PubMedCentralPubMed

Ma, H., Lv, X., Han, Y., Zhang, F., Ye, R., Yu, F., et al. (2013). Decision-making impairments in patients with Wilson's disease. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 35, 472–479. doi:10.1080/13803395.2013.789486.PubMed

Mannie, Z. N., Williams, C., Browning, M., & Cowen, P. J. (2014). Decision making in young people at familial risk of depression. Psychological Medicine. doi:10.1017/S0033291714001482.PubMedCentral

Mason, J. W. (1968). A review of psychoendocrine research on the sympathetic-adrenal medullary system. Psychosomatic Medicine, 30, 631–653. doi:10.1097/00006842-196809000-00022.PubMed

Mata, R., Josef, A. K., Samanez-Larkin, G. R., & Hertwig, R. (2011). Age differences in risky choice: a meta-analysis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1235, 18–29. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06200.x.PubMedCentralPubMed

Mather, M., & Lighthall, N. R. (2012). Risk and reward are processed differently in decisions made under stress. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 36–41. doi:10.1177/0963721411429452.PubMedCentralPubMed

Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 8–14. doi:10.1177/0963721411429458.PubMedCentralPubMed

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100. doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734.PubMed

Miyake, A., Friedman, N., Rettinger, D. A., Shah, P., & Hegarty, M. (2001). How are visuospatial working memory, executive functioning, and spatial abilities related? A latent-variable analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 621–640. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.130.4.621.

Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., & Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 6613–6619. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI. 0003-10.2010.PubMed

Must, A., Horvath, S., Nemeth, V. L., & Janka, Z. (2013). The Iowa Gambling Task in depression—what have we learned about sub-optimal decision-making strategies? Frontiers in Decision Neuroscience, 4, 732. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00732.

Oaksford, M., Morris, F., Grainger, B., & Williams, J. M. G. (1996). Mood, reasoning, and central executive processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 476–492. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.22.2.476.

Pabst, S., Schoofs, D., Pawlikowski, M., Brand, M., & Wolf, O. T. (2013). Paradoxical effects of stress and an executive task on decisions under risk. Behavioral Neuroscience, 127, 369–379. doi:10.1037/a0032334.PubMed

Padoa-Schioppa, C., & Assad, J. A. (2006). Neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex encode economic value. Nature, 441, 223–226. doi:10.1038/nature04676.PubMedCentralPubMed

Panno, A., Lauriola, M., & Figner, B. (2013). Emotion regulation and risk taking: predicting risky choice in deliberative decision making. Cognition and Emotion, 27(2), 326–334. doi:10.1080/02699931.2012.707642.PubMed

Penolazzi, B., Gremigni, P., & Russo, P. M. (2012). Impulsivity and reward sensitivity differentially influence affective and deliberative risky decision making. Personality and Individual Differences, 53, 655–659. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.05.018.

Perlstein, W. M., Elbert, T., & Stenger, V. A. (2002). Dissociation in human prefrontal cortex of affective influences on working memory-related activity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99, 1736–1741. doi:10.1073/pnas.241650598.PubMedCentralPubMed

Peters, E., Västfjäll, D., Slovic, P., Mertz, C. K., Mazzocco, K., & Dickert, S. (2006). Numeracy and decision making. Psychological Science, 17, 407–413. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01720.x.PubMed

Peters, E., Hibbard, J., Slovic, P., & Dieckham, N. (2007). Numeracy skill and the communication, comprehension, and use of risk-benefit information. Health Affairs, 26, 741–748. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.26.3.741.PubMed

Phelps, M. E. (2006). Emotion and cognition: insights from studies of the human amygdala. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 27–53.PubMed

Phillips, M. L., Drevets, W. C., Rauch, S. L., & Lane, R. (2003). Neurobiology of emotion perception I: the neural basis of normal emotion perception. Biological Psychiatry, 54, 504–514. doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(03)00168-9.PubMed

Polk, T. A., Reed, C. L., Keenan, J. M., Hogarth, P., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). A dissociation between symbolic number knowledge and analogue magnitude information. Brain and Cognition, 47, 545–563. doi:10.1006/brcg.2001.1486.PubMed

Porcelli, A. J., & Delgado, M. R. (2009). Acute stress modulates risk taking in financial decision making. Psychological Science, 20, 278–283. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02288.x.PubMed

Porcelli, A. J., Cruz, D., Wenberg, K., Patterson, M. D., Biswal, B. B., & Rypma, B. (2008). The effects of acute stress on human prefrontal working memory systems. Physiology and Behavior, 95, 282–289. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.04.027.PubMed

Preuschoff, K., Quartz, S. R., & Bossaerts, P. (2008). Human insula activation reflects risk prediction errors as well as risk. Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 2745–2752. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI. 4286-07.2008.PubMed

Pruessner, J. C., Dedovic, K., Khalili-Mahani, N., Engert, V., Pruessner, M., Buss, C., et al. (2008). Deactivation of the limbic system during acute psychosocial stress: evidence from positron emission tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging studies. Biological Psychiatry, 63, 234–240. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.04.041.PubMed

Putman, P., Antypa, N., Crysovergi, P., & van der Does, W. A. J. (2010). Exogenous cortisol acutely influences motivated decision making in healthy young men. Psychopharmacology, 208, 257–263. doi:10.1007/s00213-009-1725-y.PubMedCentralPubMed

Rahman, S., Sahakian, B. J., Hodges, J. R., Rogers, R. D., & Robbins, T. W. (1999). Specific cognitive deficits in mild frontal variant frontotemporal dementia. Brain, 122, 1469–1493. doi:10.1093/brain/122.8.1469.PubMed

Rahman, S., Robbins, T. W., Hodges, J. R., Mehta, M. A., Nestor, P. J., Clark, L., et al. (2006). Methylphenidate (‘Ritalin’) can ameliorate abnormal risk-taking behavior in the frontal variant of frontotemporal dementia. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31, 651–658. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300886.PubMedCentralPubMed

Rawal, A., Riglin, L., Ng-Knight, T., Collishaw, S., Thapar, A., & Rice, F. (2014). A longitudinal high-risk study of adolescent anxiety, depression and parent-severity on the developmental course of risk-adjustment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 1270–1278. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12279.

Raz, N., Gunning-Dixon, F., Head, D., Rodrigue, K. M., Williamson, A., & Acker, J. D. (2004). Aging, sexual dimorphism, and hemispheric asymmetry of the cerebral cortex: replicability of regional differences in volume. Neurobiology of Aging, 25, 377–396.PubMed

Reyna, V. F. (2004). How people make decisions that involve risk: a dual-processes approach. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, 60–66. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00275.x.

Reyna, V. F., & Brainerd, C. J. (2007). The importance of mathematics in health and human judgment: numeracy, risk communication, and medical decision making. Learning and Individual Differences, 17, 147–159. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.03.010.

Reyna, V. F., Nelson, W. L., Han, P. K., & Dieckmann, N. F. (2009). How numeracy influences risk comprehension and medical decision making. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 943–973. doi:10.1037/a0017327.PubMedCentralPubMed

Rogers, R. D., Everitt, B. J., Baldacchino, A., Blackshaw, A. J., Swainson, R., Wynne, K., et al. (1999a). Dissociable deficits in the decision-making cognition of chronic amphetamine abusers, opiate abusers, patients with focal damage to prefrontal cortex, and tryptophan-depleted normal volunteers: evidence for monoaminergic mechanisms. Neuropsychopharmacology, 20, 322–339. doi:10.1016/s0893-133x(98)00091-8.PubMed

Rogers, R. D., Owen, A. M., Middleton, H. C., Williams, E. J., Pickard, J. D., Sahakian, B. J., et al. (1999b). Choosing between small, likely rewards and large, unlikely rewards activates inferior and orbital prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 9029–9038.

Rosen, J., Brand, M., Polzer, C., Ebersbach, G., & Kalbe, E. (2013). Moral decision-making and theory of mind in patients with idiopathic Parkinson’s disease. Neuropsychology, 27, 562–572. doi:10.1037/a0033595.PubMed

Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (under review). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short term- and working memory.

Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: what does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33, 1025–1039. doi:10.1080/13803395.2011.595702.PubMed

Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2012). Anchor effects in decision making can be reduced by the interaction between goal monitoring and the level of the decision maker’s executive functions. Cognitive Processing, 13, 321–332. doi:10.1007/s10339-012-0522-4.PubMed

Schiebener, J., Staschkiewicz, B., & Brand, M. (2013a). The neuropsychology of emotional and cognitive mechanisms in decision making. In C. Mohiyeddini, M. Eysenck, & S. Bauer (Eds.), Handbook of psychology of emotions: Recent theoretical perspectives and novel empirical findings (2nd ed.). New York: Nova.

Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2013b). Supporting decisions under risk: explicit advice differentially affects people according to their working memory performance and executive functioning. Neuroscience of Decision Making, 1, 9–18. doi:10.2478/ndm-2013-0002.

Schiebener, J., Garcia-Arias, M., Garcia-Villamisar, D., Cabanyes-Truffino, J., & Brand, M. (2014a). Developmental changes in decision making under risk: the role of executive functions and reasoning abilities in 8- to 19-year-old decision makers. Child Neuropsychology, 16, 1–20. doi:10.1080/09297049.2014.934216.

Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014b). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1386. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386.PubMedCentralPubMed

Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014c). Effects of goals on decisions under risk conditions: goals can help to make better choices, but relatively high goals increase risk-taking. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 26, 473–485. doi:10.1080/20445911.2014.903254.

Selye, H. (1956). The stress of life. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Sinz, H., Zamarian, L., Benke, T., Wenning, G. K., & Delazer, M. (2008). Impact of ambiguity and risk on decision making in mild Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychologia, 46, 2043–2055. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.02.002.PubMed

Smith, E. E., & Jonides, J. (1999). Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes. Science, 283, 1657–1661. doi:10.1126/science.283.5408.1657.PubMed

Snowball, A., Tachtsidis, I., Popescu, T., Thompson, J., Delazer, M., Zamarian, L., et al. (2013). Long-term enhancement of brain function and cognition using cognitive training and brain stimulation. Current Biology, 23, 987–992. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2013.04.045.PubMedCentralPubMed

Somerville, L. H., Jones, R. M., & Casey, B. J. (2010). A time of change: behavioral and neural correlates of adolescent sensitivity to appetitive and aversive environmental cues. Brain and Cognition, 72, 124–133. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.07.003.PubMedCentralPubMed

Spies, K., Hesse, F. W., & Hummitzsch, C. (1996). Mood and capacity in Baddeley’s model of human memory. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 204, 367–381.

Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (2003). Is probability matching smart? Associations between probabilistic choices and cognitive ability. Memory and Cognition, 31, 243–251. doi:10.3758/bf03194383.PubMed

Starcke, K., & Brand, M. (2012). Decision making under stress: a selective review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 36, 1228–1248. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.02.003.PubMed

Starcke, K., Wolf, O. T., Markowitsch, H. J., & Brand, M. (2008). Anticipatory stress influences decision making under explicit risk conditions. Behavioral Neuroscience, 122, 1352–1360. doi:10.1037/a0013281.PubMed

Starcke, K., Tuschen-Caffier, B., Markowitsch, H.-J., & Brand, M. (2009). Skin conductance responses during decisions in ambiguous and risky situations in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 14, 199–216. doi:10.1080/13546800902996831.PubMed

Starcke, K., Pawlikowski, M., Wolf, O. T., Altstötter-Gleich, C., & Brand, M. (2011). Descision making under risk conditions is susceptible to interference by a secondary executive task. Cognitive Processing, 12, 177–182. doi:10.1007/s10339-010-0387-3.PubMed

Toplak, M. E., Sorge, G. B., Benoit, A., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2010). Decision-making and cognitive abilities: a review of associations between Iowa Gambling Task performance, executive functions, and intelligence. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 562–581. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.04.002.

Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211, 453–458. doi:10.1126/science.7455683.PubMed

Volz, K. G., & Gigerenzer. (2012). Cognitive processes in decisions under risk are not the same as in decisions under uncertainty. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 6, 105. doi:10.3389/fnins.2012.00105.PubMedCentralPubMed

Watkins, L. H. A., & Rogers, R. D. (2000). Impaired planning but intact decision making in early Huntington’s disease: implications for specific fronto-striatal pathology. Neuropsychologia, 38, 1112–1125. doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(00)00028-2.PubMed

Weller, J. A., & Fisher, P. A. (2013). Decision-making deficits among maltreated children. Child Maltreatment, 18, 184–194. doi:10.1177/1077559512467846.

Weller, J. A., Levin, I. P., Shiv, B., & Bechara, A. (2007). Neural correlates of adaptive decision making for risky gains and losses. Psychological Science, 18, 958–964.PubMed

Weller, J. A., Levin, I. P., & Bechara, A. (2009). Do individual differences in Iowa gambling task performance predict adaptive decision making for risky gains and losses? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 32, 141–150. doi:10.1080/13803390902881926.PubMed

Weller, J. A., Levin, I. P., Denburg, N. L., & Irwin, P. (2011). Trajectory of risky decision making for potential gains and losses from ages 5 to 85. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 344, 331–344. doi:10.1002/bdm.

Xue, G., Lu, Z., Levin, I. P., Weller, J. A., Li, X., & Bechara, A. (2009). Functional dissociations of risk and reward processing in the medial prefrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 18, 448–452. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn147.

Xue, G., Zhonglin, L., Levin, I. P., & Bechara, A. (2010). The impact of prior risk experiences on subsequent risky decision-making: the role of the insula. NeuroImage, 50, 709–716. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.12.097.PubMedCentralPubMed

Xue, G., Zhonglin, L., Levin, I. P., & Bechara, A. (2011). An fMRI study of risk-taking following wins and losses: implications for the gambler’s fallacy? Human Brain Mapping, 32, 271–281. doi:10.1002/hbm.21015.PubMedCentralPubMed

Yates, J. F., & Stone, E. R. (1992). The risk construct. In J. F. Yates (Ed.), Risk-taking behavior. Wiley series in human performance and cognition (pp. 1–25). Oxford: Wiley.

Zamarian, L., Sinz, H., Bonatti, E., Gamboz, N., & Delazer, M. (2008). Normal aging affects decisions under ambiguity, but not decisions under risk. Neuropsychology, 22, 645–657. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.22.5.645.PubMed

Titel: Decision Making Under Objective Risk Conditions–a Review of Cognitive and Emotional Correlates, Strategies, Feedback Processing, and External Influences
verfasst von: Johannes Schiebener
Matthias Brand
Publikationsdatum: 01.06.2015
Verlag: Springer US
Erschienen in: Neuropsychology Review / Ausgabe 2/2015
Print ISSN: 1040-7308
Elektronische ISSN: 1573-6660
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-015-9285-x

Leitlinien kompakt für die Neurologie

Mit medbee Pocketcards sicher entscheiden.

^{Seit 2022 gehört die medbee GmbH zum Springer Medizin Verlag}

Kostenlos registrieren

Neu im Fachgebiet Neurologie

Darf man die Behandlung eines Neonazis ablehnen?

08.05.2024 Gesellschaft Nachrichten

In einer Leseranfrage in der Zeitschrift Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology möchte ein anonymer Dermatologe bzw. eine anonyme Dermatologin wissen, ob er oder sie einen Patienten behandeln muss, der eine rassistische Tätowierung trägt.

Wartezeit nicht kürzer, aber Arbeit flexibler

Psychotherapie Medizin aktuell

Fünf Jahren nach der Neugestaltung der Psychotherapie-Richtlinie wurden jetzt die Effekte der vorgenommenen Änderungen ausgewertet. Das Hauptziel der Novellierung war eine kürzere Wartezeit auf Therapieplätze. Dieses Ziel wurde nicht erreicht, es gab jedoch positive Auswirkungen auf andere Bereiche.

„Restriktion auf vier Wochen Therapie bei Schlaflosigkeit ist absurd!“

06.05.2024 Insomnie Nachrichten

Chronische Insomnie als eigenständiges Krankheitsbild ernst nehmen und adäquat nach dem aktuellen Forschungsstand behandeln: Das forderte der Schlafmediziner Dr. Dieter Kunz von der Berliner Charité beim Praxis Update.

Stuhltransfusion könnte Fortschreiten von Parkinson-Symptomen bremsen

03.05.2024 Parkinson-Krankheit Nachrichten

Kann eine frühzeitige Stuhltransplantation das Fortschreiten von Parkinson-Symptomen verlangsamen? Die Ergebnisse einer randomisierten Phase-2-Studie scheinen dafür zu sprechen.

Update Neurologie

Bestellen Sie unseren Fach-Newsletter und bleiben Sie gut informiert.

Newsletter bestellen

Klimawandel und Gesundheit: Was Sie in der Hausarztpraxis wissen müssen und tun können

Springer Medizin

Abstract

Bitte loggen Sie sich ein, um Zugang zu diesem Inhalt zu erhalten

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 2/2015

Historical Perspectives on the Behavioral Function of the Insula

The Still Enigmatic Syndrome of Transient Global Amnesia: Interactions Between Neurological and Psychopathological Factors

The Potential Utility of Eye Movements in the Detection and Characterization of Everyday Functional Difficulties in Mild Cognitive Impairment

Executive Functioning in Children and Adolescents Prenatally Exposed to Alcohol: A Meta-Analytic Review

Early Research on the Localization of the Primary Gustatory Cortex