Background
Methods
Study population
Food intake measurements
Data analyses
Food group | Food items |
---|---|
High-fat spreads | Butter and high-fat margarine (80% fat) |
Low-fat spreads | Low-fat margarine (40% fat) |
Oil | Vegetable oils in cooking and as salad dressing |
Fat in cooking | Butter and margarine used in cooking |
Fruit | All fruits and berries (fresh and frozen) |
Vegetables | All vegetables (fresh and frozen) |
Milk, 0.5% | Milk, fermented milk 0.5% fat |
Milk, 1.5% | Milk, fermented milk 1.5% fat |
Milk, 3% | Milk, fermented milk 3.0% fat |
Cream | Cream, sour cream, creme fraiche |
High-fat cheese | Cheese, hard, 28% fat |
Low-fat cheese | Cheese, hard, 17% fat |
Cereals | Cold cereals |
White bread | White bread, soft and hard |
High fiber bread | High fiber bread, soft and hard |
Boiled potato | Boiled and mashed potato |
Fried potato | Fried potatoe and French fries |
Rice | Rice |
Pasta | Pasta, makaroni |
Fish | High fat and lean fish, shellfish |
Red meat | Minced meat, stew, steak |
Traditional meat | Bacon, sausage, hamburger |
Chicken | Chicken, hen |
Cold cuts | Meat, sausage and liverwurst on sandwich |
Classic | Baked beans, pancakes, dumplings |
Sweets | Candies, chocolate |
Sugar and jam | Sugar, marmalade, jam, honey |
Ice cream | Ice cream |
Cookies | Cookies, cakes |
Snacks | Chips, popcorn, peanuts |
Soda | Sodas |
Coffee | Coffee (boiled and filtered) |
Tea | Tea |
Beer | All types of beer |
Wine | Red and white wine |
Spirits | All types of spirits |
Results
Study population
Characteristic | Women (n = 32, 600) | Men (n = 29, 931) |
---|---|---|
Age (yrs) | 47.5 ± 9.3 | 47.6 ± 9.3 |
Height (cm) | 164.7 ± 6.2 | 178.2 ± 6.8 |
Weight (kg) | 68.7 ± 12.1 | 83.2 ± 12.2 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 25.3 ± 4.4 | 26.2 ± 3.6 |
Marital status (%) | ||
Married/cohabitating | 81.8 | 80.5 |
Unmarried/other | 18.2 | 19.5 |
Education (%) | ||
Basic level (9 yrs) | 24.4 | 25.7 |
High school | 46.4 | 52.8 |
University | 29.2 | 21.5 |
Activity level at work (%) | ||
Sedentary | 23.2 | 25.4 |
Light | 41.7 | 40.5 |
Moderate | 28.9 | 28.4 |
Heavy | 6.2 | 5.6 |
Activity level at leisure (%) | ||
Sedentary | 44.3 | 44.2 |
Light | 24.3 | 26.2 |
Moderate | 19.0 | 15.0 |
Active | 8.6 | 10.0 |
Highly active | 3.9 | 4.5 |
Reported energy intake (MJ/d) | 6.83 ± 1.77 | 8.71 ± 2.26 |
Macronutrient intake (% of total energy intake) | ||
Protein | 15.1 ± 0.02 | 14.5 ± 0.02 |
Carbohydrates | 51.7 ± 0.06 | 48.1 ± 0.06 |
Fat | 31.8 ± 0.06 | 35.0 ± 0.06 |
Alcohol | 0.01 ± 0.01 | 0.02 ± 0.02 |
Low Energy Reporters (%) | 59.1 | 60.4 |
High Energy Reporters (%) | 0.3 | 0.1 |
Dietary patterns
Food intake clusters1
| |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Food group | Fruit and vegetables | High fat | Coffee and sandwich | Tea and ice cream | Overall mean (SD) frequency/day |
Number of subjects (%) | 4,729 (15) | 10,572 (32) | 9,138 (28) | 8,161 (25) | 32,600 (100) |
High-fat spreads | - | +++ | -- | - | 0.66 (0.75) |
Low-fat spreads | - | -- | +++ | - | 0.63 (0.77) |
Oil | + | - | - | + | 0.28 (0.36) |
Fat in cooking | - | + | + | - | 0.47 (0.41) |
Fruit | +++ | - | - | - | 1.14 (0.74) |
Vegetables | +++ | - | - | - | 1.19 (0.80) |
Milk, 0.5% | + | - | + | - | 0.39 (0.55) |
Milk, 1.5% | - | + | + | - | 0.46 (0.54) |
Milk, 3% | - | + | - | = | 0.32 (0.36) |
Cream | - | + | = | = | 0.10 (0.11) |
High-fat cheese | - | + | = | = | 0.43 (0.43) |
Low-fat cheese | + | - | + | - | 0.24 (0.36) |
Cold cereals | + | - | + | = | 0.33 (0.31) |
White bread | - | + | + | - | 0.39 (0.38) |
High fiber bread | + | - | + | - | 1.29 (0.72) |
Boiled potato | + | = | = | - | 0.40 (0.24) |
Fried potatoes | - | + | + | = | 0.06 (0.05) |
Rice | + | - | = | + | 0.11 (0.11) |
Pasta | + | - | = | + | 0.14 (0.10) |
Fish | + | - | = | = | 0.17 (0.10) |
Red meat | + | - | = | = | 0.30 (0.13) |
Traditional meat | - | = | = | = | 0.15 (0.07) |
Chicken | ++ | - | = | = | 0.06 (0.04) |
Cold cuts | = | - | + | - | 0.33 (0.31) |
Classic | = | = | = | = | 0.11 (0.06) |
Sweets | - | + | = | + | 0.14 (0.16) |
Sugar and jam | - | + | = | - | 0.40 (0.52) |
Ice cream | = | = | = | + | 0.06 (0.06) |
Cookies | - | + | + | - | 0.36 (0.33) |
Snacks | - | = | = | = | 0.05 (0.05) |
Soda | - | + | = | + | 0.19 (0.26) |
Beer | = | + | + | = | 0.05 (0.07) |
Wine | = | - | = | - | 0.05 (0.06) |
Spirits | = | = | = | = | 0.02 (0.03) |
Coffee | + | + | +++ | --- | 1.66 (0.95) |
Tea | - | - | - | ++ | 0.43 (0.54) |
Food intake clusters1
| ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Food group | Fruit and vegetables | High fat | Tea, soda and cookies | Overall mean (SD) frequency/day |
Number of subjects (%) | 9,179 (31) | 8,725 (29) | 12,027 (40) | 29,931 (100) |
High-fat spreads | -- | ++ | + | 0.70 (0.64) |
Low-fat spreads | +++ | -- | -- | 0.41 (0.59) |
Oil | + | - | = | 0.18 (0.23) |
Fat in cooking | - | + | = | 0.33 (0.29) |
Fruit | + | - | = | 0.57 (0.45) |
Vegetables | + | - | - | 0.61 (0.45) |
Milk, 0.5% | + | - | - | 0.25 (0.41) |
Milk, 1.5% | - | + | - | 0.40 (0.46) |
Milk, 3% | - | + | + | 0.26 (0.32) |
Cream | = | = | = | 0.07 (0.08) |
High-fat cheese | = | - | = | 0.32 (0.32) |
Low-fat cheese | + | - | - | 0.16 (0.25) |
Cold cereals | + | - | + | 0.23 (0.23) |
White bread | = | - | = | 0.39 (0.35) |
High fiber bread | +++ | = | - | 0.99 (0.59) |
Boiled potato | = | = | - | 0.29 (0.20) |
Fried potatoes | + | = | = | 0.07 (0.06) |
Rice | = | = | = | 0.08 (0.09) |
Pasta | = | = | = | 0.11 (0.08) |
Fish | = | = | = | 0.13 (0.07) |
Red meat | = | = | = | 0.25 (0.11) |
Traditional meat | = | = | = | 0.14 (0.07) |
Chicken | + | = | = | 0.04 (0.03) |
Cold cuts | + | = | - | 0.28 (0.26) |
Classic | = | = | = | 0.09 (0.05) |
Sweets | = | - | = | 0.11 (0.12) |
Sugar and jam | - | + | - | 0.52 (0.57) |
Ice cream | = | = | = | 0.05 (0.05) |
Cookies | - | - | = | 0.29 (0.27) |
Snacks | = | = | = | 0.04 (0.05) |
Soda | - | - | + | 0.19 (0.23) |
Beer | = | + | = | 0.09 (0.11) |
Wine | + | = | = | 0.03 (0.05) |
Spirits | = | = | = | 0.03 (0.04) |
Coffee | + | ++ | -- | 1.36 (0.76) |
Tea | = | - | + | 0.26 (0.37) |