Background
Methods
Search strategy
Inclusion criteria
Exclusion criteria
Data extraction
Study | Participants | Exercise | Years of cycling training | Study design | Data source | Resultsa
| Strength of evidence | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number | Sex | Age | |||||||
Barry et al. (2007) [47] | CYC (20) | M | 22 to 45 | Competitive level | 2-h exercise bout at 60% to 75% VT | Hormones, calcium | Parathyroid was increased after 2 h of cycling. | B: observational | |
Barry et al. (2008) [43] | CYC (14) | M | 27 to 44 | >450 h/year | 4.9 ± 2.4 | Two groups: HIGH and LOW calcium supplementation over 1-year season | DXA | Both groups decreased BMD over 1 year in total hip and subregions, without differences for HIGH or LOW calcium. | A: RCT |
Barry et al. (2011) [39] | CYC and TRI (20) | M | 37 ± 7.6 | - | 6.0 ± 6.5 | Different calcium supplementation groups over three 35-km trials | DXA, hormones | 30% of participants had LS BMD T-score over -1.0. Calcium supplementation attenuates disruption of parathyroid hormone. | A: RCT |
Beshgetoor et al. (2000) [41] | CYC (12); RUN (9); CON (9) | F | 49.6 ± 7.9 | - | - | 18 months follow-up | DXA, calcium intake | Femur BMD maintained in CYC and RUN, decline CON. LS BMD maintained RUN, decline CYC and CON. No relationship between BMD and calcium intake. | B: case-control |
Brown et al. (2000) [49] | CYC (32) | M/F | 16 to 62 | Competitive cycling | >2 | Two groups: HIGH FAT and HIGH CARBOHYDRATE intake; 12-week intervention | DXA | No differences in fat or lean accumulation between groups. BMD increased in HIGH FAT group. | A: RCT |
Campion et al. (2010) [34] | CYC (30) CON (30) | M | 29 ± 3.4 28 ± 4.5 | 22 to 25 h/week <1 h/week | - | Cross-sectional | DXA | CYC lower WB, LS, pelvis, femoral neck, upper and lower limbs than CON | B: case-control |
Duncan et al. (2002) [21] | CYC (15) RUN (15) SWI (15) TRI (15) CON (15) | F | 16 to 17 | ≥8 h/week ≥8 h/week ≥8 h/week ≥8 h/week <2 h/week | 3.1 ± 1.8 | Cross-sectional | DXA | CYC lower legs BMD than RUN. No differences with CON. | B: case-control |
Duncan et al. (2002) [45] | CYC (10) RUN (10) SWI (10) TRI (10) CON (10) | F | 16 to 17 | ≥8 h/week ≥8 h/week ≥8 h/week ≥8 h/week <2 h/week | 3.1 ± 1.8 | Cross-sectional | MRI, DXA | CYC lower cortical CSA, moment of inertia and mid-femur BMD than RUN. No differences with CON. | B: case-control |
Fiore et al. (1996) [36] | CYC (14); CAN (18); CON (28) | M | - | - | - | Cross-sectional | DXA | CYC lower WB, LS and pelvic BMD than CAN. No differences with CON. | B: case-control |
Guillaume et al. (2012) [38] | CYC (29) | M | 26.5 ± 5.3 | 25,000 to 30,000 km/year | 4.5 ± 4 | Descriptive | DXA, bone markers | CYC lower LS BMD Z-scores. Bone turnover markers were in a normal range. | B: case series |
Heinonen et al. (1993) [19] | CYC (22); ORI (30); SKI (28); CYC (29); WL (18); CON (25) | F | 18 to 32 | - | - | Cross-sectional | DXA, calcium intake | CYC lower BMD at all sites than WL. No differences with CON. No relationship between BMD and calcium intake. | B: case-control |
Hinrichs et al. (2010) [35] | CYC (16) RUN (37) TRI (22) TEAM (62) POW (45) BAL (13) STU (126) CON (61) | M/F | 17 to 30 | 15 h/week 12.5 h/week 15 h/week 10 h/week 10 h/week 27 h/week 7.5 h/week - | >4 | Cross-sectional | DXA | CYC low values of LS and femur BMD than the other groups | B: case-control |
Maïmoun et al. (2003) [25] | CYC (11) SWI (13) TRI (14) CON (10) | M | 18 to 39 | 10.6 h/week 10.7 h/week 15.2 h/week <2 h/week | - | Cross-sectional | DXA, hormones | CYC and TRI induce androgen deficiency compared to CON, without alteration in BMD | B: case-control |
Maïmoun et al. (2004) [24] | CYC (11) SWI (13) TRI (14) CON (10) | M | 18 to 39 | 10.6 h/week 10.7 h/week 15.2 h/week <2 h/week | 9.3 ± 6.8 | Cross-sectional | DXA, bone markers, calcium intake | CYC lower BAP than all groups. No differences in BMD. No relationship between BMD and calcium intake. | B: case-control |
Medelli et al. (2009) [29] | CYC (73) CON (30) | M | 25.8 ± 4.3 28.3 ± 4.5 | ≥3 to 6 h/day <1 h/week | - | Cross-sectional | DXA, calcium intake | CYC had higher calcium intake and lower LS and femoral neck BMD than CON. | B: case-control |
Medelli et al. (2009) [4] | CYC (23) | M | 28.5 ± 3.9 | ≥3 to 6 h/day | - | Descriptive | DXA | Two-thirds of participants had lower values of LS BMD | B: case series |
Morel et al. (2001) [27] | CYC (47); other sports (657) | M | 30 | 7 h/week | - | Cross-sectional. Sportsmen classed as amateur when 11 to 18 years old. | DXA | No differences between different sports | B: case-control, retrospective |
Nevill et al. (2004) [23] | CYC (16) CON (15) Others (90) | M | 28.6 ± 6 24.9 ± 5.4 - | >4 h/week - - | >3 | Cross-sectional | DXA | CYC had no differences in BMD compared to CON, as other sports do | B: case-control |
Nichols et al. (2003) [32] | Young CYC (16) Master CYC (27) CON (24) | M | 31.7 ± 3.5 51.2 ± 5.3 51.2 ± 2 | ≥10 h/week ≥10 h/week <2 days/week | 10.9 ± 3.2 20.2 ± 8.4 - | Cross-sectional | DXA | Master CYC lower WB BMD than young CYC. Master CYC lower LS and hip BMD than young CYC and CON. | B: case-control |
Nichols et al. (2010) [42] | CYC (19) CON (18) | M | 50.7 ± 4 50.7 ± 4.1 | 11.1 h/week 4.5 h/week | 27.5 ± 6.8 | Longitudinal, 7-year follow-up | DXA | Higher percentage of CYC osteopenic/osteoporotic than CON. Greater increment in this percentage in CYC. | B: case-control |
Nikander et al. (2005) [26] | CYC (29) SWI (27) VOL (21) HUR (24) SQU (20) SOC (19) SKA (15) AER (27) WL (19) ORI (29) CRO (25) CON (30) | F | 20 to 30 | 10.2 ± 6.8 13.5 ± 4.5 9.9 ± 2.5 9.1 ± 2.4 6.0 ± 3.1 8.6 ± 5.5 6.4 ± 3.6 6.6 ± 3.7 8.3 ± 2.6 8.6 ± 1.4 10.9 ± 1.2 2.9 ± 2.0 | 5.9 ± 3.1 10.6 ± 4.3 8.6 ± 3.3 10.4 ± 3.0 6.4 ± 4.7 10.7 ± 3.8 9.4 ± 7.2 8.3 ± 2.7 3.3 ± 1.3 13.0 ± 3.1 10.7 ± 3.5 - | Cross-sectional | DXA, calcium intake | CYC and SWI no differences with CON in BMD and CSA, as the rest of the sports. No differences in calcium intake. | B: case-control |
Olmedillas et al. (2011) [40] | CYC (21) CON (23) | M | 15 to 21 | 10 h/week 4 h/week | 2 to 7 | Cross-sectional | DXA | CYC lower BMC at WB, pelvis, FN and legs, and lower BMD at pelvis, hip and legs. Greater differences in CYC over 17 years compared to CON. | B: case-control |
Penteado et al. (2001) [22] | CYC (31) CON (28) | M | 24 26 | 21 h/week 0 | 5.2 ± 3.3 | Cross-sectional | DXA | No differences with CON. | B: case-control |
Rector et al. (2008) [37] | CYC (27) RUN (16) | M | 20 to 39 | ≥6 h/week ≥6 h/week | >2 | Cross-sectional | DXA, bone markers | CYC lower WB and LS BMD, and 7 times more likely to have osteopenia than RUN. No differences in bone turnover markers. | B: case-control |
Rico et al. (1993) [20] | CYC (22) CON (27) | M | 16 | ≥10 h/week - | >2 | Cross-sectional | DXA, calcium intake | CYC lower legs BMC than CON, without adjustment. No differences when adjusting by weight. No relationship between BMD and calcium intake. | B: case-control |
Rico et al. (1993) [50] | CYC (22) CON (27) | M | 16 | ≥10 h/week - | >2 | Cross-sectional | DXA | CYC lower WB BMC and BMD than CON | B: case-control |
Sabo et al. (1996) [30] | CYC (6) WL (28) BOX (6) CON (21) | M | 21 to 24 | 3,000 to 10,000 km in pre-competition | - | Cross-sectional | DXA | CYC lower LS BMD than CON | B: case-control |
Stewart et al. (2000) [31] | CYC (14) RUN (12) RUN+CYC (13) CON (23) | M | 18 to 43 | 8.7 h/week 10.7 h/week 9.4 h/week 0 h/week | >2 | Cross-sectional | DXA | CYC lower LS BMD than CON. RUN higher WB BMD than CON. RUN+CYC higher WB BMD than CON. | B: case-control |
Smathers et al. (2009) [33] | CYC (32) CON (30) | M | 20 to 45 | ≥1 year 3 days/week | 9.4 ± 1.1 | Cross-sectional | DXA, calcium intake, hormones | CYC higher calcium intake. No differences for testosterone. CYC lower LS BMD than CON. | B: case-control |
Warner et al. (2002) [28] | Cross-country CYC (16) Road CYC (14) CON (15) | M | 20 to 40 | ≥10 h/week ≥10 h/week <2 h/week | 5.9 ± 2.8 9.9 ± 4.4 - | Cross-sectional | DXA, hormones | Cross-country CYC higher BMD at all sites that road CYC and CON. No differences in testosterone levels. | B: case-control |
Wilks et al. (2009) [46] | Sprint CYC (52) Distance CYC (19) CON (32) | M/F | 30 to 82 50 ± 13 | <2 h/week | 26 ± 15 29 ± 16 Start age | Cross-sectional | pQCT | Sprint CYC higher index of strength in tibia and radius than CON. Distance CYC higher tibial BMC than CON. | B: case-control |