Introduction
Methodology
Botanical sources of SLs
Cynara scolymus
Arnica montana
Spilanthes acmella
Taraxacum officinale
Melampodium spp.
Solidago spp.
Ethnopharmacology
Cynara scolymus
Plant species | Plant parts | Preparation/extraction | Administration mode | Ailments cured | Country | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cynara scolymus | Leaves | Leaf extract | Oral intake | Jaundice | French | [67] |
Embittering alcoholic, soft drinks, herbal tea | Europe | [61] | ||||
Biliary tract, digestive action, scurvy, anemia | Tunisia | [60] | ||||
Root bark | Dried plant parts are boiled with water | Oral intake | Febrifuge | Australia | [61] | |
Arnica montana | Fresh flowers | Decoction tincture and oil rubbing | Tinctures Ointments | Antirheumatic, hematomas, sprains | Italy | [62] [68] [69] |
Roots, flowers, and leaves | Bruises/sprains/rheumatic pain/skin inflammation/wounds | Spain | [63] [64] | |||
Spilanthes acmella | Flowers and leaves | Dried | Oral intake | Toothache and throat problems | India | [70] |
Muscle pain, Headache, toothache | Bangladesh | [66] | ||||
Whole plant | Cough | Haryana, India | [71] | |||
Head infections, itchiness | Jamalpur District, Bangladesh | [66] | ||||
Flowers | Toothache | Tamil Nadu, India | [72] | |||
Whole plant | Anti-cancer agent | Indonesia | [72] | |||
Flower | Toothach, dysentery | Saurashtra region, Gujarat, India | [73] | |||
Leaves and flowers | Leucorrhoea, toothache, anti-inflammatory, astringent, gums, dysentery, antibacterial, anemia | Bogra District, Bangladesh | [73] | |||
Juice of inflorescence | Ulcer in mouth | Karnataka, India | [74] | |||
Flowers tincture | Sialagogue | Sri Lanka | [74] | |||
Cold infusion flowers | Diuretic, urinary calculi | Uva Province Sri Lanka | [74] | |||
Entire plant | Snakebite, rheumatic fever | Nigeria | [75] | |||
Leaves | Soup | Betsimisaraka Tanala people Madagascar | [75] | |||
Alcoholic hangover | Brazil | [76] [77] | ||||
Taraxacum officinale | Roots in combination with other herbs | Dried | Powder | The analgesic reduces the burning feeling of urination and regulates its outflow | India | [78] |
Leaves | Infusion | Ailments of the liver and bile ducts, viral and bacterial infections, cancer | Mexico | [79] [80] | ||
Leaves and roots | Crushed into a slurry and administer orally or topically | Liver problems, diuretic | Himalaya | [81] | ||
Leaves and root | Used in salads, dried, and fermented into wine | Blood and bowels are free of impurities | USA | [82] | ||
Flower and leaves | Infusion | Refreshing and digestible | Italy | [83] | ||
Whole plant | Powder | Hypertension | Ghana | [84] | ||
Whole plant | Decoction | Various skin inflammations, anti-haemorrhoids | Italy | [85] | ||
Leaves and roots | Decoction | Malaria | Venezuela | [86] | ||
Flowers | Cooking the blooms with sugar yields 'honey.' | Antitussive | Croatia | [85] | ||
Aerial part & Leaves | Infusion, Eaten as salad | Depurative, hepatic, renal discomfort, gastric ulcer | Bolivia | [87] | ||
Leaves and flowers | Decoction | Depurative, eupeptic. Gastronomic use | Italy | [88] | ||
Leaves and flowers | cooked or served in a salad | Anti-diabetic, diuretic, cholagogue, laxative | Italy | [83] | ||
Whole plant | Decoction | Liver diseases | Italy | [89] | ||
Leaves | Usage with salad | Depurative | Russia | [90] | ||
Leaves and roots | Infusion | Diuretic kidney stones, renal depurative | Peru Bolivia | [91] | ||
Leaves and roots | Dried leaves infusion or freshly prepared infusion The toasted root | Kidney stones, hepatodepurative, depurative, diuretic | Colombia | [91] | ||
Aerial part | Raw or fried | Food | Slovakia | [92] | ||
Flowers, leaves, roots | Raw, cooked, or boiled | Diuretic, respiratory suppressant, hypotensive, astringent to the intestine | Italy | [93] | ||
Leaves | As just a salad ingredient, or blanched or cooked as a vegetable | Food | Serbia | [94] | ||
Flower Leaves | Infusion | Infections of the stomach, urinary tract, menstrual cycle, lungs treatment | Kosovo | [95] | ||
Flower Leaf Root | Infusion. Milk-based decoction | Diabetes, rheumatism, anemia, menstrual irregularities, blood purification, corpus purification, biliary tract purification, digestion, loss of appetite, liver problem | Bosnia and Herzegovina | [96] | ||
Leaves Roots | Decoction Cataplasms | Diabetic, digestive, diuretic, and tonic. Constipation, liver, spleen, cardiac swelling, rheumatic aches are treated with root paste | Pakistan | |||
The apical section of florets and the base leaves | As a snack or in salads, Roots that have been fried | Coffee alternative | Spain | [97] | ||
Leaves | The leaves are either fried in oil or simmered in water | Reduce the severity of hot flashes | Tibet | [98] | ||
Melampodium | Leaves | Extract | Fever, malaria, flatulence, stomachache, colic, joint pain, muscle discomfort, palpitation, vertigo, rheumatism, jaundice, and anuria might occur Carminative and diuretic | Worldwide distribution | [99] [100] | |
Leaves | Extract | Wound healing, antiulcer, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic | [101] [102] | |||
Solidago | Whole plant | Fresh rhizomes | It's used to treat mouth and throat irritation, wounds and bleeding, urinary tract, nephritis, cystitis, and bladder malfunction, and it's also used in tea to help pass gallstones | Hungary | [103] [104] |
Arnica montana
Spilanthes acmella
Taraxacum officinale
Melampodium spp.
Solidago spp.
General characterization and structure-anticancer activity relationship
Guaianolides
Pseudoguaianolide
Eudesmanolide
Melampodinin A
Germacrene
Anti-carcinogenic activity of SLs: efficacy, signaling pathways and cellular mechanisms of action
Guaianolides (Cynara scolymus)
Pseudoguaianolides (Arnica montana)
Eudesmanolide (Spilanthes acmella and Taraxacum officinale)
Melampodinin A (Melampodium spp.)
Germacrene (Solidago spp.)
Tested compound/source | Cancer tested model | Mechanisms of action | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|
Guaianolides (Cynara scolymus) Cynaropicrin | leukocyte cancer cells in vitro | ↓invasion ↓migration ↓metastasis | [150] |
U937 cells in vitro | ↑apoptosis ↑cell cycle stall at the G1/S stage | [151] | |
DU145 human prostate cancer cells in vitro | ↑anti-apoptotic genes ↑Bcl-2, ↓IL-6, ↓STAT3 ↓intracellular GSH | [152] | |
Keratinocytes cells in vitro | ↓TrxR ↓NF-κB | [132] | |
Pseudoguaianolides (Arnica montana) Helenalin | A2780 human ovarian cancer cells RKO colon carcinoma cancer cells MCF-7 breast adenocarcinoma cancer cells in vitro | ↑autophagic cell death ↑caspase activity | [153] |
Eudesmanolide (Spilanthes acmella and Taraxacum officinale) | MCF-7 breast cancer cells in vitro | ↓ metastasis ↓colony formation | [154] |
HEP-2 HT-29 liver cancer cells in vitro | ↓ROS ↑apoptosis ↓cancer cells growth | [155] | |
DLA Dalton’s lymphoma ascites cells V79 Chinese hamster lung carcinoma in vitro | ↑DNA damage ↓ROS | [156] | |
MCF-7AZ breast cancer cells LNCap prostate cancer cells in vitro | ↓cancer cells growth ↓PI3K/AKT | [157] [141] | |
A375 human melanoma cells in vitro | ↑apoptosis ↑caspase-8 | [144] | |
SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells in vitro | ↑cytotoxic activity | ||
mice in vivo | ↓tumor size | [157] | |
Melampodinin A (Melampodium spp.) | PC-3 DU145 Hela in vitro | seizure of the cell cycle at the G2/M stage ↑abnormal mitotic spindle cycle ↑cytotoxicity | [145] |
Germacrene (Solidago spp.) germacrene D | Hepg2 liver carcinoma cells breast MCF7 carcinoma cells cervix Hela carcinoma cells in vitro | ↑cytotoxic activity | [147] |
SMMC- 7721 SGC-7901 Hela in vitro | ↑cytotoxic activity | [158] |