Introduction
Current evidence suggests that hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide [
1,
2]. The past decades have witnessed unprecedented medical progress which has led to the advent of novel diagnostic and therapeutic approaches resulting in a significant reduction in the mortality rate of HCC. Nonetheless, according to the 2018 Global Cancer Statistics, 420, 000 new cases and 391, 000 000 liver cancer deaths have been reported in China [
1]. The prognosis of HCC remains poor, with a 5-year overall survival (OS) of less than 25% [
3]. Accordingly, over the past few years, there has been a burgeoning interest in exploring the molecular mechanisms underlying tumor progression and developing targeted treatments for this patient population.
In recent years, a significant number of noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) have been identified to regulate the biological characteristics of HCC instead of side-products of splicing. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) represent a novel population of endogenous long ncRNAs (lncRNAs) that regulate gene expression and protein function in mammals, mainly composed of exons of the protein-coding genes and exhibit higher stability than the linear RNA owing to the circular structure to defy exonucleolytic RNA decay [
4,
5]. There is a rich literature available substantiating the multiple regulatory functions of circRNAs, including microRNA (miRNA) sponging, interaction with proteins, and acting as protein translation templates, which may contribute to carcinogenesis and tumor progression [
6‐
9]. In a previous study, we provided preliminary evidence that a novel protein (circFNDC3B-218aa) encoded by circFNDC3B could block colon cancer progression by regulating the Snail/FBP1 pathway [
10]. Besides, several circRNAs have been associated with HCC. In this respect, circ-CDYL, circASAP1, circSLC3A2, circRHOT1, circMAT2B, and circMALAT1 have been documented as enhancers in HCC, while circMOT1, cSMARCA5 and circTRIM33-12 reportedly act as competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs) to suppress HCC progression [
11‐
18]. However, the overall pathological effect and underlying mechanisms of circRNAs in HCC have been largely understudied, emphasizing the need for further research.
Metabolic reprogramming is a well-recognized hallmark of cancer cells. Intriguingly, despite the presence of oxygen, cancer cells produce energy via aerobic glycolysis rather than mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), in addition to upregulated glucose uptake and lactate generation, this phenomenon is termed the Warburg effect [
19,
20]. Based on the Warburg effect, adenosine triphosphates (ATP) and many molecules required for carcinogenesis are synthesized in HCC and other cancerous cells to regulate the tumor microenvironment, maintain cancer biology, and resist antitumor therapy [
21]. In addition, recent studies have shown that FOXK2 is a critical transcription factor that regulates multiple biological processes and participates in the induction of aerobic glycolysis by strengthening the activity of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 and 4 to suppress the oxidation of pyruvate and to enhance the enzymatic machinery [
22,
23]. Besides, it has been demonstrated that FOXK2 promotes the proliferation and migration of HCC cells mediated by activation of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway [
24]. However, whether the circRNA originated from the
FOXK2 gene is associated with the Warburg effect in HCC remains largely unclear.
In the present study, we identified a novel circRNA (circFOXK2, has_circ_0000817) that acted as a promoter in HCC and correlated with poor postoperative prognosis. Mechanistically, circFOXK2 exhibits protein-encoding (encodes the FOXK2-142aa protein to regulate the phosphorylation of LDHA) and miRNA sponging [binds to miR-484 to relieve silencing of mitochondrial adaptor fission 1 (Fis1)] roles to enhance the Warburg effect in HCC cells. In a nutshell, circFOXK2 has huge prospects as an effective prognostic biomarker and a potential target for HCC treatment.
Methods and materials
Clinical data and specimens
HCC and adjacent tumor-free liver tissues were obtained from ninety-two patients who underwent radical hepatectomy at the Department of Hepatic Surgery and Liver Transplantation Center of the Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University (Guangzhou, China) between July 2014 and August 2018. All enrolled patients were histologically diagnosed without any history of other pre-operative treatment, including chemotherapy and radiotherapy. After being collected, the resected specimens were cut, snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen and subsequently stored at -80℃. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, and the procedures were conducted abiding by the Declaration of Helsinki. All patients provided informed consent. Detailed information on the operated patients is provided in Supplemental Table
2.
Cell lines and culture
The normal human hepatocyte line LO2 and four human HCC lines, Huh7, HepG2, Hep3B, and SK-Hep1, were purchased from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Shanghai, China) and maintained in high glucose (4.5 g/L)-Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's medium (DMEM, Gibco, Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA, USA) containing with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS, PAN-Biotech, Germany). All cells were cultured at 37℃ under an atmosphere of 5% CO2. All cell lines were tested for mycoplasma and were mycoplasma-free when the experiments were conducted.
Total RNA extraction and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR)
The primer sequences used in this study are listed in Supplemental Table
1. Total RNA extraction, reverse transcription and qRT-PCR were conducted as previously described [
10]. The tissues were cut into 0.5 cm
3 pieces and sequentially triturated in liquid nitrogen, while the cells were digested in 0.1% trypsin (Gibco, Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA, USA). Then, total RNA extraction was performed using TRIzol (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's protocol. After confirming the amount and purity of total RNA using Biophotometer plus (Eppendorf, Germany), the Transcriptor First Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit (Roche Applied Science, USA) was used to reverse-transcribe total RNA to cDNA. cDNA was amplified using PCR Thermal Cycler (Bio-Rad, USA) by first heating at 65℃ for 10 min, incubating at 55℃ for 30 min, deactivating at 85℃ for 5 min and finally storage at 4℃ for 5 min. qRT-PCR was performed by SYBR Master Mix (Roche Applied Science) using a reverse transcription system (LC-480, Roche, USA). Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) was used to normalize gene expression data.
RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization
RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (RNA-FISH) was conducted to visualize the location of circFOXK2 (RiboBio, Guangzhou, China) and miR-484 (BersinBio, Guangzhou, China) in cells using Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization Kits according to the manufacturer's instructions. The cells were treated with probes targeting circFOXK2 (hsa_circ_0000817) and miR-484 at 4℃ overnight and observed under a Zeiss 880 confocal microscope (Nikon Instruments, Melville, New York, United States) after being stained with DAPI for 2 min.
Cell proliferation assay
The proliferation potential of HCC cells was detected using a cell counting kit-8 (CCK8, KeyGEN BioTECH, Jiangsu, China) according to the manufacturer's protocol. After being treated according to the predefined group design, the cells were seeded in a 96-well plate at a density of 4,000 cells per well and cultured for 24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 h. The cell viability of each group was determined by the optical density (OD) values at 450 nm using a microplate reader (Tecan Spark 10 M, Austria).
The colony formation assay was used to evaluate the cloning ability of HCC cells. HCC cells in each group were seeded in 6-well plates at a density of 1,000 cells/well. Then, the cells were cultured in an incubator for 2 weeks. The colonies were visualized and counted after being fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA) and stained with crystal violet.
Flow cytometry analysis
To measure cell apoptosis, a PI/Annexin V-FITC Apoptosis Detection Kit (BD, USA) was used according to the manufacturer's instructions. Briefly, 1 × 106 HCC cells in each group were collected and rinsed twice with a washing buffer. Subsequently, the cells were incubated with Annexin V and PI for 15 min in the dark at room temperature. The cell apoptosis rate was determined using flow cytometry (BD Biosciences, San Jose, CA, USA).
Transwell invasion assay
2 × 105 HCC cells were resuspended in serum-free DMEM medium and seeded into the upper chamber of Transwell plates with 8.0-μm pores (Corning Costar, Corning, NY, USA). DMEM medium containing 10% FBS was added into the lower chamber. The cells were maintained in an incubator at 37℃ for 24 h. Then, the non-migrated cells on the upper compartment were removed. Subsequently, the cells were fixed with 4% PFA for 30 min and stained with crystal violet for 15 min. Images were captured under an inverted light microscope (Leica, German) and counted using ImageJ software (National Institutes of Health, USA).
Wound healing assay
The cells in each group were seeded in 6-well plates for 24 h. A straight scratch was created using the tip of a sterilized pipette. Then, cells were washed gently with D-Hanks and cultured in DMEM containing 1% FBS. The samples were detected and photographed at 0 and 24 h under an inverted light microscope (Leica).
Western blot assay
The cells were lysed in cold radioimmunoprecipitation assay (RIPA) Lysis Buffer containing Tris–HCL (pH 7.4, 50 mM), NaCl (150 mM), 0.1% Triton (100 ×), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS, 10%), sodium deoxycholate (10%), ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA, 2 mM) and protease cocktail inhibitor (KeyGEN BioTECH, Jiangsu, China) for 20 min on ice. After total protein quantitation using a bicinchoninic protein assay (KeyGEN BioTECH), 30 μg proteins were electrophoresed using 12% SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) and subsequently transferred onto polyvinylidene difluoride membranes (PVDF, Millipore, Billerica, MA, USA). 5% non-fat milk was used to block the non-specific antigen of the membranes for 1 h at room temperature. Then, the membranes were incubated with the corresponding primary antibodies at 4℃ overnight. After washing three times, the membranes were treated with secondary antibodies (anti-rabbit IgG, 1:5000, Sigma-Aldrich) for 1 h at room temperature. The blots were visualized by a ChemiDoc™ MP Imaging System (Bio-Rad, CA, USA) after treatment with an enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL) substrate. The intensities of the blots were evaluated using ImageJ software.
1)
Lactate: Lactate concentration in the cell culture supernatant was determined utilizing a Lactate Assay Kit (BioVision) following the manufacturer's instructions. In brief, after each group was treated as previously defined during the study design, the supernatant was harvested and centrifuged for 10 min to remove the insoluble portion. The samples were incubated with a Lactate Assay Kit for 30 min in the dark and detected by a microplate reader (Tecan Spark 10 M, Austria) at a wavelength of 570 nm.
2)
Pyruvate activity: For determination of pyruvate activity, the cells in each group were collected and extracted in the Pyruvate Assay Buffer (4 volume, BioVision). After centrifugation for 10 min to remove insoluble material, the supernatant was detected using a Pyruvate Colorimetric Assay Kit (BioVision). The reaction mixture was assayed at a wavelength of 570 nm using a microplate reader after incubation at room temperature in the dark for 30 min.
3)
Intracellular ATP: Intracellular ATP was measured by an ENLITEN ATP Assay System Bioluminescence Detection Kit (Promega, USA) following the manufacturer's instructions. After each group was treated as previously defined during the study design and cultured in high-glucose DMEM containing 10% FBS for 48 h, the cells were washed with PBS three times and subsequently extracted in the ATP Assay Buffer (Promega). The ENLITEN ATP Assay System Bioluminescence Detection Kit was mixed with the supernatant, followed by incubation in the dark for 30 min at room temperature. The OD values at 570 nm were detected using a microplate reader.
The NADH/NAD + assays
The NADH/NAD + Quantification Colorimetric Kit (BioVision) was used to determine the NADH/NAD + ratio of HCC cells. All procedures were conducted following the manufacturer's protocol.
The extracellular acidification rate and oxygen consumption rate were detected using the Seahorse XF
e 96 Extracellular Flux Analyzer (Seahorse Bioscience) following the manufacturer's instructions. The results were analyzed using the Seahorse XF-96 Wave software. The procedures for these two assays were as follows:
-
ECAR: The cells from each group were seeded in a 24-well cell culture XF microplate (Seahorse Bioscience) at a density of 25,000 cells/well. After being cultured overnight to allow cell adherence, the cells were washed twice with assay medium and subsequently incubated with assay medium [the DMEM containing L-glutamine (2 mM), pH 7.4] in a CO2-free incubator at 37℃ for 1 h. In addition, 80 mM glucose, 9 μM oligomycin and 1 M 2-DG were loaded to cartridge ports A, B, and C. All values were normalized according to the cell number through the crystal violet assay. ECAR was identified as glycolysis rate after being treated with glucose, and the glycolytic capacity was determined after oligomycin treatment.
-
OCR: ATP synthesis was inhibited by oligomycin (1 μM, Sigma), then maximal OCR was measured by adding trifluoromethoxy carbonyl cyanide phenylhydrazone (FCCP, 500 nM, Sigma), and mitochondrial respiration was inhibited using antimycin A (the mitochondrial complex I inhibitor rotenone + the mitochondrial complex III inhibitor, 1 μM, Sigma). The values were also normalized according to the cell number.
Detection of intracellular mitochondrial morphology
The mitochondrial morphology in the HCC cells was observed by staining with a MitoTracker Green FM probe (Invitrogen) in the dark for 30 min at 37℃. Images were obtained under a Zeiss 880 confocal microscope to assess the number and morphology of mitochondria. Finally, the percentage of cells with small and round mitochondria was calculated.
Co-immunoprecipitation
The cells were lysed in 4℃ cold co-IP buffer [HEPES (10 mM, pH 8.0), NaCl (300 mM), EDTA (0.1 mM), NP-40 (0.2%), glycerol (20%), protease and phosphatase inhibitors] for 30 min. The lysates were centrifuged at 10,000 g for 5 min and cleared after being treated with protein A/G agarose (Gibco BRL, Grand Island, NY, USA) for 15 min at 4℃. The pre-cleared supernatant was stirred in a horizontal shaker and incubated with the indicated primary antibodies at 4℃ overnight. Next, the protein complexes were harvested and incubated with the protein G beads for 120 min at 4℃. Finally, the samples were separated via SDS-PAGE.
Mass spectrometry analysis by LC–MS/MS
Mass spectrometry analysis was conducted as previously described [
10]. In brief, total proteins were first separated by SDS-PAGE (12%). Then, the protein bands near 15 kDa were manually cut according to the size and digested by sequencing-grade trypsin (Promega, Madison, WI, USA). Peptide mixtures were extracted, dried, and finally loaded to LC–MS/MS (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) for detecting the protein sequences. The National Center for Biotechnology Information nonredundant protein database with Mascot (Matrix Science, Boston, MA, USA) was used to analyze the fragment spectra.
RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP)
After cross-linking with 1% formaldehyde in ice-cold PBS for 10 min, the cells were collected and lysed in RIP lysis buffer, followed by treatment with Dynabeads protein G conjugated with anti-AGO2 or anti-IgG and rotating overnight at 4℃. The immunoprecipitated RNAs were obtained using TRIzol reagent and measured by RT-qPCR with specific primers.
Dual-luciferase reporter assay
The sequences of circFOXK2 with mutated miR-484 binding sites or wild-type were established and inserted into luciferase vectors. Then, these vectors and miR-484 mimics were co-transfected into HEK-293 T cells for 48 h. The luciferase activity was detected by a dual-luciferase reporter assay system (Promega, USA) following the manufacturer's instructions. The Renilla luciferase internal control was used to normalize the results.
Biotin-labeled miRNA capture
The RNA pull-down assay was carried out as previously documented [
25]. The biotin-labeled miR-484 mimic (GenePharma, China) was transfected into the stably overexpressing circFOXK2 HCC cells for 48 h. After being washed and blocked by yeast tRNA for 2 h at 4℃, the streptavidin-Dyna beads M-280 were incubated with the cell lysates overnight at 4℃ to pull down the biotin-coupled RNA complex. The abundance of circFOXK2 in bound sections was detected by qRT-PCR.
Animals
Five-week-old male BALB/c nude mice were purchased from the Biomedical Research Institute of Nanjing University (Jiangsu, China) and housed under conditions following the Guidelines of Sun Yat-sen University for Animal Experimentation. All mice were housed under specific pathogen-free (SPF) conditions at the Laboratory Animal Center of Sun Yat-sen University with 12 h dark/light cycle, 50% humidity, 20℃ temperature and were fed standard laboratory diet and water ad libitum.
Animal xenograft experiments
All in vivo experiments were approved by the Ethics Committee of Sun Yat-sen University (Guangzhou, China) and complied with the institutional guidelines. The xenograft model was established as previously described [
26,
27]. 5 × 10
6 HCC cells (Huh7) were suspended in Matrigel and injected subcutaneously into the left back of the mice. The length and width of the tumors were measured every three days when the tumors became palpable. Four weeks after implantation, the tumors were harvested for further analysis after sacrificing the mice. The weight and volume of samples were measured. The formula for calculating the tumor volume was as follows: tumor volume = (tumor length × tumor width
2)/2. Moreover, lung metastasis models were established to detect the invasion potential of HCC cells in vivo. In brief, an empty vector, a sh-circFOXK2, or sh-circFOXK2 + a FOXK2-142aa overexpression plasmid, was transfected to the GFP-labeled HCC cells followed by intravenous injection through the tail vein at a density of 2 × 10
6 cells/mouse. The mice were sacrificed after four weeks, and the lungs were visualized and photographed using the IVIS@ Lumina II system.
Immunohistochemistry staining
The protocol of immunohistochemistry staining was conducted as previously described [
28]. In brief, 4 μm-thick paraffin-embedded sections were dewaxed and dehydrated, followed by incubation with H
2O
2 (3%) for 10 min at 37℃. For antigen repair, the sections were treated with EDTA (pH 8.0) at 95℃ for 20 min and then cooled down to 25℃. After blocking the non-specific antigens with normal goat serum, the sections were incubated with primary antibodies overnight at 4℃ and the secondary antibody for 30 min at 37℃. Finally, the sections were treated with diaminobenzidine and detected under a light microscope (Leica, Germany).
DNA/RNA transfection
The control plasmid (vector control), circFOXK2 overexpressing vector, circFOXK2-flag vector, circFOXK2-mut vector, circFOXK2-flag-mut vector and FOXK2-142aa vector were obtained from General Biosystems (Anhui, China). ShRNA knocking down circFOXK2, siRNA targeting LDHA and miR-484 mimics or inhibitors were purchased from GenePharma (GenePharma Corporation, Shanghai, China). After reaching approximately 60% confluence, the vectors were transfected to the cells using a Lipofectamine® 3000 transfection kit (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA), while the shRNA, siRNA and miRNA mimics or inhibitors were transfected using Lipofectamine RNAiMax (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's protocol. The efficiency of transfection was determined by qRT-PCR.
Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses were performed by GraphPad Prism (version 5.0, USA) and SPSS 23.0 (IBM, SPSS, Chicago, IL., USA). The relationship between circFOXK2 expression and the clinicopathological characterizations of HCC was analyzed by the Chi-square test. In addition, univariate and multivariate analyses were performed using a Cox proportional hazards regression model to assess the clinical value of circFOXK2. Survival analysis was carried out by the Kaplan–Meier method, and differences in overall survival were analyzed using the log-rank test. All in vitro experiments were independently repeated three times. As appropriate, the significant difference was assessed by the Mann–Whitney U test, Wilcoxon rank-sum test or unpaired two-tailed Student's t-test. A probability (p) value less than 0.05 was statistically significant. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.
Discussion
The Warburg effect plays a predominant role in cancer metabolism, promoting macromolecule biosynthesis and ATP generation and accounts for tumor progression and resistance to various therapeutics [
13]. Based on the important role of the Warburg effect in HCC, in the present study, we identified a novel circRNA, circFOXK2 (hsa_circ_0000817), which was highly expressed in HCC tissues compared with their adjacent liver tissues and correlated with a poor prognosis. Next, we revealed its protein-encoding and miRNA sponging roles in mediating the Warburg effect.
FOXK2 is a critical transcription factor and a member of the forkhead box (FOX) family that contains a conserved helix DNA binding domain and regulates various biological processes, including the induction of aerobic glycolysis. The effect of FOXK2 on tumor progression remains controversial. FOXK2 can reportedly suppress tumor progression in breast cancer, renal carcinoma, and glioma, while contrasting findings have been reported for colorectal cancer and HCC [
35‐
37]. Importantly, FOXK2 has been found to be upregulated in HCC tissues and promote HCC cell proliferation and migration via stimulating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway [
24].
Emerging evidence suggests that circRNAs are transcribed from precursor mRNA via back-splicing and participate in regulating various cancers. Recently, a circRNA derived from
FOXK2 (has_circ_0000816) has been found to promote the growth and metastasis of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma by sponging miR-942 and directly binding YBX1 and hnRNPK [
38]. However, whether
FOXK2-derived circRNA also affects the biological functions of HCC remains largely unknown. In this study, we assessed fourteen circRNAs derived from
FOXK2 and identified a novel circRNA (hsa_circ_0000817) that was significantly upregulated in HCC and plays an important role in promoting the progression and upregulating the Warburg effect of HCC. Indeed, it has been established that most circRNAs act as miRNA sponges or protein scaffolds. Interestingly, some circRNAs have recently been revealed to encode novel proteins or peptides that the translational procedure initiates in the IRES sequence and terminates in the novel stop codons [
39]. In the present study, we demonstrated that circFOXK2 could encode a novel 142-aa protein, FOXK2-142aa. After treatment with a specific antibody targeting FOXK2-142aa, we showed that FOXK2-142aa was highly expressed in HCC and correlated with poor prognosis of HCC patients after radical hepatectomy. Mechanistically, the results from mass spectrum assay after co-IP revealed the correlation between FOXK2-142aa and LDHA. We found that FOXK2-142aa could interact with LDHA and activate its phosphorylation. It is well-recognized that LDHA activation induces pyruvate generation and promotes the catalysis of pyruvate to lactate, which is an essential checkpoint in driving the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle anaplerosis to provide energy to HCC cells and potentiates their proliferation, invasion, and migration [
31]. A previous study reported that hCINAP could interact with the C-terminal △219–278 of LDHA to modulate its phosphorylation [
40]. In the present study, after LDHA was split into several sections, it was found that FOXK2-142aa could directly bind to the △161–218 C-terminal domain of LDHA and phosphorylated LDHA at Tyr10 site, thereby forming the FOXK2-142aa/LDHA signaling pathway to activate the Warburg effect in HCC.
Notably, both in vivo and in vitro experiments showed that blocking circFOXK2 encoding ability did not completely inhibit its pro-tumor role, suggesting the existence of other pathways to affect HCC progression. "miRNA sponging" is a circRNA function that represents a research hotspot in HCC [
41]. As ceRNAs, many circRNAs interact with miRNAs via their miRNA response elements to regulate the biological effects of miRNAs, forming a complicated post-transcriptional modulatory network, a critical factor for cancer development [
42]. CircMRPS35 could promote malignant progression and induce chemoresistance of HCC via sponging miR-148a [
43]. Moreover, circRPN2 acts as a ceRNA for miR-183-5p to upregulate FOXO1 expression and suppress HCC progression [
44]. Herein, based on bioinformatic analyses, RNA pull-down, and luciferase reporter assays, we identified that circFOXK2 contained miR-484 response elements and could specifically sponge to miR-484 that has been found to act as a tumor suppressor in various cancers, including cervical cancer and colorectal cancer [
45,
46]. Li et al. reported that miR-484 suppresses pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDCA) growth via reducing Yes-associated protein (YAP) expression [
47]. In the present study, we demonstrated that Fis1 and its downstream mitochondrial fission were targets of miR-484 in HCC. In this respect, it was found that miR-484 could mitigate Fis1 expression by binding to its 3’-UTR region. Fis1 is a receptor for dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) for the induction of mitochondrial fission that has been demonstrated to exhibit a key role in promoting the reprogramming of glucose metabolism and inducing the progression and anti-chemotherapy of cancer cells [
48,
49]. Our rescue experiments found that circFOXK2 could regulate Fis1 expression and mitochondrial dynamics by interacting with miR-484. Notwithstanding that the present research revealed two regulatory mechanisms of circFOXK2 in HCC, more research is warranted to assess the existence of other potential signaling pathways.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by This work was supported by the grants from the National Key Laboratory of Liver Disease Research (WW201701), National Bioengineering Research Center Cultivation Platform (WW201905), National 13th Five-Year Science and Technology Plan Major Projects of China (2017ZX10203205), National key research and development program (2017YFA0104304), National Natural Science Foundation of China (82073171, 81900597, 81802897, 81901943, 81770648, 81970567, 82100693, 82170631, 81972286), Guangdong Key Laboratory of Liver Disease Research (2020B1212060019), Science and Technology Program of Guangdong Province (2019B020236003), Science and Technology Program of Guangzhou City (201803040005), Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province (2019A1515011698, 2021A1515012136, 2021A1515011156, 2021A1515010571), Medical Scientific Research Foundation of Guangdong Province (A2020120), Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation (2020A1515110687, 2021A1515111058), Guangzhou Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation (202102020237), Major talent project cultivation plan project (P02093, P02095), and Academician Shusen Lanjuan Talent foundation.
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