Background
Methods
Recruitment
Measure | TD (n = 21) | ARND (n = 22) | ADHD (n = 20) | Significancea | Post-hoc tests | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Std Dev | Mean | Std Dev | Mean | Std Dev | |||
Age (years) | 12.60 | 1.29 | 12.21 | 1.63 | 11.99 | 1.32 | F = 0.950 P = 0.392 | |
Gender (% male) | 76.2 | 63.6 | 90 | χ2 = 4.014 P = 0.134 | ||||
Household Income ($)b | 70,842 | 15,302 | 52,989 | 19,690 | 66,167 | 27,416 | F = 3.965 P = 0.024 | TD > ARNDcP = 0.006 |
Full Scale IQ | 107.81 | 13.08 | 74.38 | 11.69 | 96.55 | 16.87 | F = 30.968 P <0.001 | TD > ARNDdP <0.001 |
ADHD > ARND P <0.001 |
Medication
Comorbidities
Psychological assessment
fMRI tasks
Statistics
Magnetic resonance imaging
Region of interest analysis
Results
Subject characteristics
Task performance
Parameter | TD (n = 21) | ARND (n = 22) | ADHD (n = 20) | Significancea | Post-hoc tests | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Std Dev | Mean | Std Dev | Mean | Std Dev | |||
Working memory index (WISC) | 100.86 | 12.65 | 69.62 | 16.49 | 89.80 | 12.28 | F = 29.986 P <0.001 | TD > ARNDbP <0.001 |
ADHD > ARND P <0.001 | ||||||||
Working memory - Parent (BRIEF) | 50.38 | 9.96 | 75.50 | 9.09 | 69.05 | 7.79 | F = 44.320 P <0.001 | TD < ARNDbP <0.001 |
TD < ADHD P <0.001 | ||||||||
1-back accuracy (%) | 94.87 | 4.25 | 80.94 | 12.06 | 79.79 | 13.88 | F = 12.495 P < 0.001 | TD > ARNDcP <0.001 |
TD > ADHD P <0.001 | ||||||||
0-back accuracy (%) | 95.63 | 3.48 | 88.64 | 8.15 | 89.46 | 10.34 | F = 5.052 P = 0.009 | |
1-back errors (%) | 1.93 | 2.03 | 11.42 | 9.89 | 11.39 | 8.08 | F = 11.158 P <0.001 | TD < ARNDcP <0.001 |
TD < ADHD P <0.001 | ||||||||
1-back non-response (%) | 3.20 | 3.26 | 7.64 | 6.93 | 10.21 | 10.59 | F = 4.642 P = 0.013 | |
1-back response time (ms) | 538 | 115 | 623 | 192 | 667 | 183 | F = 3.197 P = 0.048 | |
0-back response time (ms) | 740 | 184 | 910 | 330 | 964 | 266 | F = 3.983 P = 0.024 | |
1-back response variability (ms) | 203 | 78 | 305 | 110 | 336 | 131 | F = 8.669 P <0.001 | TD < ARNDcP = 0.008 |
TD < ADHD P = 0.001 | ||||||||
0-back response variability (ms) | 188 | 98 | 275 | 126 | 303 | 123 | F = 5.581 P = 0.006 |
fMRI results
0-Back task
1-Back task
Subtractive contrast (1-Back minus 0-Back)
Region | Hemisphere | Gyrus | BA | Talairach Coordinates | Voxel T | Cluster Extent | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X | Y | Z | ||||||
Parietal | Left | Superior Parietal Lobule | 7 | −12 | −67 | 59 | 3.22 | |
Right | Precuneus | 7 | 2 | −74 | 35 | 4.39 | 1,276 | |
Precuneus | 7 | 2 | −66 | 44 | 3.59 | |||
Precuneus | 7 | 10 | −55 | 58 | 2.14 | |||
Superior Parietal Lobule | 7 | 18 | −57 | 62 | 2.53 | 107 | ||
Superior Parietal Lobule | 7 | 14 | −61 | 55 | 2.34 | |||
Occipital | Left | Cuneus | 19 | −22 | −88 | 30 | 3.37 | 91 |
Cuneus | 30 | −16 | −68 | 7 | 3.4 | 640 | ||
Fusiform | 19 | −32 | −76 | −10 | 2.22 | 22 | ||
Lingual | 18 | −12 | −70 | −7 | 3.06 | |||
Lingual | 18 | −10 | −82 | −6 | 2.13 | 48 | ||
Middle Occipital | 19 | −36 | −89 | 10 | 4.3 | 146 | ||
Right | Cuneus | 17 | 10 | −79 | 11 | 2.55 | ||
Lingual | 17 | 18 | −89 | −1 | 2.15 | |||
Lingual | 18 | 20 | −78 | −5 | 2.36 | 68 | ||
Temporal | Left | Middle Temporal | 22 | −48 | −43 | 2 | 2.73 | 201 |
Middle Temporal | 22 | −59 | −47 | 2 | 2.52 | |||
Superior Temporal | 22 | −55 | −7 | 8 | 2.82 | 29 | ||
Superior Temporal | 39 | −48 | −52 | 10 | 2.66 | |||
Limbic | Left | Posterior Cingulate | 31 | −22 | −65 | 14 | 2.96 | |
Right | Parahippocampal | 28 | 20 | −26 | −7 | 2.25 | 32 | |
Posterior Cingulate | 30 | 18 | −68 | 7 | 2.7 | |||
Posterior Cingulate | 31 | 12 | −65 | 16 | 3.02 | 262 | ||
Cerebellum | Left | Culmen | −4 | −36 | −18 | 3.02 | ||
Midbrain | Right | Red Nucleus | 4 | −25 | −4 | 2.26 | 35 | |
Brain Stem | 0 | −30 | −22 | 3.37 | 127 |
Region | Hemisphere | Gyrus | BA | Talairach Coordinates | Voxel T | Cluster Extent | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X | Y | Z | ||||||
Frontal | Left | Inferior Frontal | 47 | −32 | 23 | −6 | 2.06 | 25 |
Medial Frontal | 8 | 0 | 26 | 47 | 2.11 | |||
Medial Frontal | 9 | −20 | 43 | 14 | 2.83 | |||
Middle Frontal | 10 | −28 | 51 | 20 | 3.32 | 549 | ||
Middle Frontal | 11 | −40 | 48 | −9 | 2.94 | 75 | ||
Middle Frontal | 47 | −42 | 40 | −9 | 2.23 | |||
Middle Frontal | 9 | −38 | 31 | 28 | 2.66 | |||
Middle Frontal | 11 | −24 | 47 | 1 | 2.68 | 339 | ||
Superior Frontal | 8 | 0 | 16 | 49 | 2.6 | 70 | ||
Right | Middle Frontal | 10 | 28 | 52 | 21 | 3.69 | ||
Middle Frontal | 9 | 32 | 43 | 38 | 3.71 | |||
Superior Frontal | 10 | 32 | 56 | −3 | 3.89 | 1,513 | ||
Parietal | Left | Precuneus | 31 | −8 | −71 | 24 | 1.88 | 44 |
Superior Parietal Lobule | 7 | −12 | −61 | 55 | 4.41 | 3,179 | ||
Superior Parietal Lobule | 7 | −18 | −67 | 55 | 3.61 | |||
Right | Precuneus | 7 | 2 | −70 | 46 | 3.5 | ||
Supramarginal | 40 | 57 | −57 | 30 | 2.3 | 29 | ||
Occipital | Left | Cuneus | 18 | −16 | −71 | 20 | 1.83 | |
Right | Cuneus | 19 | 22 | −86 | 28 | 3.03 | 67 | |
Temporal | Right | Superior Temporal | 13 | 59 | −44 | 19 | 1.96 | |
Superior Temporal | 22 | 61 | −54 | 17 | 2.49 | 34 | ||
Superior Temporal | 41 | 50 | −32 | 13 | 1.88 | 23 | ||
Limbic | Left | Anterior Cingulate | 32 | −12 | 35 | 4 | 2.47 | |
Anterior Cingulate | 32 | −20 | 37 | 4 | 2.53 | |||
Cingulate | 32 | 0 | 27 | 34 | 2.69 | 67 | ||
Midbrain | Right | Red Nucleus | 2 | −16 | −4 | 3.48 | 68 | |
Sub-lobar | Left | Lentiform Nucleus | −16 | −2 | 2 | 2.65 | 29 |
Region | Hemisphere | Gyrus | BA | Talairach Coordinates | Voxel T | Cluster Extent | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X | Y | Z | ||||||
Frontal | Left | Inferior Frontal | 10 | −44 | 45 | 3 | 2.07 | |
Inferior Frontal | 10 | −44 | 46 | −4 | 2.16 | 38 | ||
Middle Frontal | 11 | −38 | 48 | −9 | 2.09 | |||
Right | Middle Frontal | 46 | 46 | 42 | 26 | 2.81 | 45 | |
Middle Frontal | 9 | 51 | 31 | 30 | 2.22 |
Region | Hemisphere | Gyrus | BA | Talairach Coordinates | Voxel T | Cluster Extent | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X | Y | Z | ||||||
Sub-lobar | Left | Thalamus | 0 | −11 | 19 | 2.53 | 26 | |
Right | Insula | 40 | −10 | −1 | 2.74 | 21 | ||
Limbic | Left | Parahippocampal | 35 | −16 | −29 | −5 | 3.17 | 36 |
Right | Amygdala | 28 | 1 | −20 | 2.90 | 18 | ||
Occipital | Left | Inferior Occipital | 19 | −36 | −74 | −3 | 2.58 | 38 |
Lingual | 19 | −18 | −66 | 3 | 2.97 | 34 | ||
Lingual | −30 | −74 | 2 | 2.44 | ||||
Temporal | Left | Middle Temporal | 22 | −48 | −44 | 4 | 2.79 | 38 |
Sub-Gyral | 21 | −44 | −14 | −9 | 2.43 | 21 | ||
Superior Temporal | 22 | −57 | −8 | 4 | 3.44 | 63 | ||
Right | Superior Temporal | 38 | 46 | 7 | −10 | 3.40 | 69 | |
Cerebellum | Right | Culmen | 12 | −33 | −7 | 3.22 | 37 | |
Culmen | 16 | −41 | −8 | 2.34 | ||||
Culmen | 14 | −32 | −22 | 2.55 | 19 | |||
Midbrain | Left | Red Nucleus | −2 | −20 | −14 | 2.92 | 29 | |
Brain Stem | 0 | −30 | −24 | 2.57 | 20 |
Region | Hemisphere | Gyrus | BA | Talairach Coordinates | Voxel T | Cluster Extent | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X | Y | Z | ||||||
Frontal | Left | Inferior Frontal | 45 | −50 | 37 | 6 | 2.76 | 28 |
Inferior Frontal | 45 | −55 | 20 | 16 | 2.58 | 22 | ||
Medial Frontal | 8 | −2 | 41 | 38 | 2.61 | 14 | ||
Middle Frontal | 8 | −18 | 31 | 41 | 2.46 | 33 | ||
Middle Frontal | 8 | −36 | 22 | 45 | 2.46 | 12 | ||
Sub-Gyral | −22 | 45 | 1 | 2.98 | 116 | |||
Superior Frontal | −28 | 52 | 1 | 2.45 | ||||
Right | Inferior Frontal | 10 | 44 | 45 | 3 | 3.10 | 58 | |
Middle Frontal | 10 | 28 | 52 | 21 | 3.25 | |||
Middle Frontal | 8 | 34 | 41 | 38 | 3.01 | 29 | ||
Middle Frontal | 9 | 50 | 8 | 38 | 2.56 | 13 | ||
Paracentral Lobule | 5 | 8 | −36 | 55 | 2.31 | 15 | ||
Sub-Gyral | 3 | 18 | −32 | 55 | 2.30 | |||
Superior Frontal | 9 | 10 | 55 | 19 | 3.36 | |||
Superior Frontal | 9 | 20 | 43 | 38 | 2.59 | 26 | ||
Superior Frontal | 8 | 2 | 20 | 47 | 3.27 | 107 | ||
Right | Superior Frontal | 9 | 16 | 39 | 33 | 2.28 | ||
Sub-lobar | Left | Lateral Globus Pallidus | −14 | 0 | 0 | 2.44 | 14 | |
Limbic | Left | Anterior Cingulate | 32 | −10 | 34 | 20 | 3.48 | 1,318 |
Anterior Cingulate | 32 | −20 | 37 | 4 | 2.58 | |||
Anterior Cingulate | 32 | −8 | 42 | −7 | 2.70 | 46 | ||
Right | Anterior Cingulate | 32 | 6 | 33 | −5 | 2.68 | 15 | |
Parietal | Left | Precuneus | 19 | −28 | −82 | 35 | 2.70 | 23 |
Precuneus | 7 | −2 | −64 | 49 | 2.65 | 42 | ||
Precuneus | 7 | 0 | −72 | 46 | 2.28 | |||
Superior Parietal Lobule | 7 | −28 | −57 | 54 | 2.42 | 15 | ||
Right | Inferior Parietal Lobule | 40 | 40 | −50 | 54 | 2.56 | 31 | |
Occipital | Right | Cuneus | 19 | 22 | −86 | 28 | 2.72 | 30 |
Midbrain | Right | Red Nucleus | 2 | −16 | −4 | 3.64 | 44 |
Region | Hemisphere | Gyrus | BA | Talairach Coordinates | Voxel T | Cluster Extent | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X | Y | Z | ||||||
Frontal | Left | Paracentral Lobule | 5 | 0 | −40 | 54 | 2.80 | 60 |
Precentral | 43 | −55 | −9 | 10 | 3.12 | 153 | ||
Right | Inferior Frontal | 44 | 57 | 5 | 15 | 2.30 | ||
Sub-lobar | Left | Insula | 13 | −44 | −17 | 6 | 2.54 | |
Right | Insula | 13 | 40 | −22 | −4 | 2.56 | ||
Insula | 13 | 42 | −18 | 25 | 2.42 | 44 | ||
Insula | 13 | 38 | −24 | 20 | 2.39 | |||
Insula | 13 | 48 | 6 | 2 | 2.36 | 24 | ||
Limbic | Left | Cingulate | 31 | −12 | −43 | 28 | 2.61 | 30 |
Cingulate | 31 | −16 | −46 | 19 | 2.49 | 21 | ||
Posterior Cingulate | 30 | −10 | −62 | 12 | 3.25 | |||
Right | Parahippocampal | 28 | 22 | −28 | −9 | 3.02 | 137 | |
Parietal | Right | Inferior Parietal Lobule | 40 | 63 | −28 | 24 | 3.66 | |
Inferior Parietal Lobule | 40 | 59 | −24 | 31 | 2.38 | |||
Postcentral | 40 | 63 | −20 | 21 | 4.02 | 205 | ||
Postcentral | 43 | 59 | −5 | 17 | 3.02 | 57 | ||
Precuneus | 7 | 8 | −57 | 58 | 2.72 | 47 | ||
Precuneus | 7 | 16 | −73 | 50 | 2.66 | 28 | ||
Temporal | Right | Fusiform | 37 | 30 | −40 | −13 | 3.15 | 70 |
Hippocampus | 30 | −24 | −11 | 2.92 | ||||
Superior Temporal | 41 | 48 | −33 | 9 | 2.67 | 22 | ||
Cerebellum | Left | Culmen | −10 | −53 | −4 | 3.29 | ||
Culmen | −22 | −36 | −12 | 2.91 | 131 | |||
Culmen | −16 | −40 | −17 | 2.78 | ||||
Culmen of Vermis | −4 | −62 | 1 | 3.71 | 433 |
Region | Hemisphere | Gyrus | BA | Talairach Coordinates | Voxel T | Cluster Extent | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X | Y | Z | ||||||
Frontal | Right | Inferior Frontal | 45 | 50 | 37 | 7 | 2.52 | 20 |
Inferior Frontal | 10 | 46 | 43 | 3 | 2.19 | |||
Middle Frontal | 10 | 38 | 43 | 7 | 2.34 | 16 | ||
Middle Frontal | 9 | 32 | 45 | 36 | 2.61 | 40 | ||
Middle Frontal | 8 | 26 | 39 | 39 | 2.47 | |||
Paracentral Lobule | 5 | 6 | −38 | 53 | 3.37 | |||
Precentral | 4 | 30 | −23 | 51 | 2.55 | 27 | ||
Sub-lobar | Left | Thalamus | −2 | −23 | 12 | 2.66 | 37 | |
Thalamus | −4 | −22 | 20 | 2.32 | ||||
Right | Claustrum | 38 | −22 | −4 | 2.43 | 15 | ||
Insula | 13 | 30 | −32 | 22 | 2.41 | 20 | ||
Thalamus | 16 | −35 | 5 | 2.51 | 16 | |||
Limbic | Left | Cingulate | 31 | −16 | −44 | 22 | 2.32 | 15 |
Posterior Cingulate | 30 | −10 | −62 | 12 | 3.49 | 460 | ||
Posterior Cingulate | 29 | −8 | −38 | 17 | 2.58 | 15 | ||
Posterior Cingulate | 23 | −10 | −28 | 24 | 2.48 | |||
Posterior Cingulate | 23 | −2 | −34 | 24 | 2.40 | 46 | ||
Right | Cingulate | 24 | 4 | 15 | 27 | 2.66 | 27 | |
Cingulate | 31 | 12 | −38 | 26 | 2.33 | 15 | ||
Parahippocampal | 30 | 16 | −45 | 1 | 2.60 | 20 | ||
Parietal | Left | Postcentral | 40 | −61 | −24 | 21 | 2.51 | |
Precuneus | 7 | −12 | −66 | 48 | 3.42 | |||
Precuneus | 19 | −32 | −80 | 37 | 2.37 | 14 | ||
Right | Inferior Parietal Lobule | 40 | 63 | −30 | 24 | 3.72 | 712 | |
Postcentral | 40 | 65 | −20 | 21 | 3.61 | |||
Postcentral | 3 | 20 | −28 | 62 | 2.99 | 43 | ||
Precuneus | 7 | 16 | −73 | 48 | 3.49 | 3,072 | ||
Occipital | Left | Cuneus | 18 | −12 | −71 | 16 | 2.61 | |
Cuneus | 19 | −14 | −82 | 37 | 2.40 | 16 | ||
Lingual | 18 | −8 | −58 | 5 | 3.06 | |||
Right | Middle Occipital | 19 | 42 | −81 | 10 | 2.58 | 19 | |
Temporal | Left | Fusiform | 20 | −30 | −36 | −15 | 2.60 | 55 |
Superior Temporal | 42 | −61 | −32 | 18 | 2.66 | 41 | ||
Right | Fusiform | 37 | 40 | −47 | −9 | 2.92 | 26 | |
Fusiform | 20 | 30 | −40 | −15 | 2.80 | 20 | ||
Middle Temporal | 21 | 59 | −47 | 1 | 2.61 | 19 | ||
Middle Temporal | 37 | 46 | −56 | 5 | 2.40 | 49 | ||
Superior Temporal | 41 | 50 | −30 | 13 | 3.07 | |||
Cerebellum | Left | Culmen | −20 | −32 | −14 | 2.48 |
Age
IQ
Comorbid disorders
ARND subjects with diagnoses of ADHD
fMRI ROI analysis
ROI | BA | Shapea | Talairach Coordinates | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
X | Y | Z | |||
L Middle frontal | 10 | Sphere | −32 | 51 | 1 |
R Middle frontal | 10 | Sphere | 26 | 52 | 21 |
R Insula | 13 | Sphere | 32 | 3 | 18 |
L Inferior parietal | 40 | Sphere | −61 | −31 | 37 |
L Middle temporal | 21 | Sphere | −51 | 1 | −19 |
R Inferior temporal | 37 | Sphere | 55 | −58 | −4 |
Anterior cingulate | Cortical surface | ||||
Posterior cingulate | Cortical surface |