Study design and subjects
An open-label pilot trial of minocycline therapy for children with autism and a history of regression was approved by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Institutional Review Board (
https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00409747). Consent for participating in the pilot trial was obtained from the parents or legal guardian. Minocycline dosage was calculated for each subject at 1.4 mg/kg per day. This dose was based on the Bonelli
et al. 2004 study of minocycline in Huntington’s Disease, which used 100 mg/day in adult subjects [
33]. Vitamin B6 at a dose of 0.6 mg/kg twice daily was given in conjunction with minocycline administration to mitigate the potential for vestibular side effects.
Subjects were referred and evaluated at the Intramural Autism Research Program of the National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland. Children were eligible for inclusion if they were between three and twelve years of age, met research criteria for a diagnosis of autism, had a history of developmental regression, and were stable on all behavioral and/or medical therapies. Autism diagnoses were made using the Autism Diagnostic Interview - Revised (ADI-R) [
34] or a Toddler version, the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule [
35], and clinical judgment based on DSM-IV criteria for autistic disorder. The diagnostic evaluations also included cognitive testing (described below), and information from the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition (VABS) [
36]. Regression was defined as language loss (loss of at least three spontaneously meaningful words) and/or nonverbal communication/social loss (loss of more than one nonverbal communicative behavior). Regression histories were confirmed by the ADI-R and a modified Regression Validation Interview [
37].
Subjects were excluded for known genetic defects, based on medical records or clinical genetics testing, prematurity of less than 32 weeks gestation or small for gestational age status, serious neurologic disorders (for example, cerebral palsy or uncontrolled epilepsy), evidence of renal insufficiency, hepatic disease or autoimmune disorder, or presence of a first degree relative with systemic lupus erythematous. Patients were also excluded if they were taking any medications that were contraindicated with either minocycline or vitamin B6.
Eleven children (9 boys, 2 girls; mean age 7.19 years; range 3 to 12 years) were enrolled in the trial. By clinical history, loss of social and communication skills had occurred at a mean age of 18.4 months (range 8 to 28 months). Ten children completed the six-month open-label trial; one child dropped out after three months because of parental concerns about side effects.
Clinical and behavioral assessments were performed at baseline and at post-treatment during the trial, and data are presented in Table
1. At baseline, eight participants were administered the Mullen Scales of Early Learning [
38] and three participants were administered the Differential Ability Scales Second Edition (DAS-II) [
39]. Since many of the children who were assessed with the Mullen Scales were out of age range or below the ‘floors’ of the standard scales, a nonverbal developmental quotient (NVDQ) was used to describe intellectual functioning. The NVDQ is the ratio of IQ of age equivalent/chronological age for the average of the nonverbal portions of the test. For the three participants administered the DAS-II, the nonverbal cognitive score was the standard score from the nonverbal reasoning domain.
Table 1
Patient sample description
1 | 99 | F | 27 | 30 | 6 | 5 | 55 | 54 |
2a | 64 | M | 13 | 60 | 5 | 4a | 68 | 73a |
3 | 69 | M | 12 | 33 | 5 | 5 | 45 | 44 |
4 | 153 | M | 19 | 77 | 5 | 5 | 56 | 55 |
5 | 91 | M | 8 | 58 | 3 | 3 | 60 | 56 |
6 | 66 | M | 18 | 103 | 4 | 4 | 70 | 71 |
7 | 128 | F | 15 | 25 | 5 | 5 | 55 | 46 |
8 | 112 | M | 14 | 33 | 5 | 5 | 53 | 56 |
9 | 49 | M | 18 | 59 | 4 | 4 | 66 | 63 |
10 | 38 | M | 22 | 90 | 4 | 3 | 70 | 66 |
11 | 83 | M | 18 | 32 | 5 | 5 | 48 | 57 |
| | | |
M ± SD
| 4.6 ± 0.8 | 4.4 ± 0.8 | 58.7 ± 8.8 | 58.3 ± 9.3 |
| | | |
Effect Size
| - | −0.3 | - | −0.1 |
The severity of core autism symptoms was rated at baseline and monthly intervals using the Clinical Global Impression Severity Scale (CGI-S) [
40], and change was recorded with the CGI-Improvement (CGI-I). In addition, adaptive functioning was measured using the VABS. Parents were queried about medication side effects at monthly intervals.
Serum, plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were obtained at baseline and following six months of minocycline administration. CSF was obtained by lumbar puncture under fasting conditions, while the child was sedated with propofol. Venous blood samples were obtained at the same time as the CSF and aliquots of both were sent for immediate analysis of routine laboratory tests at NIH or stored (−80°C) for research analyses. Subjects also underwent monthly blood tests for evaluating potential hematological, metabolic, or hepatic side effects.
The cytokines TNFα, IFN-γ, IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-10, IL-12(p40), IL 12(p70), IL-13, IL-15, GM-CSF and the chemokines CCL2 (MCP-1), CCL3 (MIP-1α), CCL5 (Rantes), CXCL8 (IL-8), CCL11 (Eotaxin) and CXCL10 (IP-10) were measured in the serum and CSF at baseline and after six months treatment with minocycline. Additional assays included comparisons of baseline and six months concentrations of plasma and CSF leptin, CD40 ligand and neurotrophic factors such as brain neurotrophic growth factor (BDNF), hepatic growth factor [HGF], and glial derived growth factor [GDNF]. MMPs (MMP-1, MMP-3, MMP-7, MMP-8 and MMP-9) were also measured in plasma.
All analytes were measured by multiplexed bead array assays (Luminex™) techniques with exception of the pro-form (pro-BDNF), truncated form (truncated-BDNF) and mature form of BDNF (mature-BDNF) that were measured by immunoblot analysis of serum samples using an antibody that recognized all three isoforms (Santacruz Biotechnology, Inc., Dallas, Texas, USA, cat# SC546). The relative presence of the pro-BDNF, truncated-BDNF and mature-BDNF in serum was determined by densitometric analysis and its presence was established as a ratio in which α-2 macroglobulin was used for normalization. Multiplexed assay kits and beads were obtained from commercial sources (for example, BioRad™, Invitrogen™, R&D systems™ and Millipore™) and procedures followed manufacturers’ recommendations. Blinded samples were measured in duplicates and blank values subtracted from all readings. Measurements and data analysis of all assays were performed with the Luminex-200™ system in combination with Luminex manager software (Bioplex Manager 5.0, Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA). Our biomarker quality assurance program used standard operating procedures to review results for unexpected or unacceptable variance (evidence of bead clumping, coefficients of variation greater than 20%, unusual distributions of values, outliers more than 4 SD from the mean).