Premature birth affects more than 500,000 newborns in the USA each year, occurring in approximately 10% of all births in 2016 [
1]. Survival rates for these infants have improved dramatically due to advances in perinatal and neonatal care. In contrast to this improvement in mortality, long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes have not improved, with preterm birth remaining a leading cause of neurological disabilities in children [
2]. These surviving preterm children face a range of neurodevelopmental and neurobehavioral challenges [
3‐
7], with more than 30% experiencing impairments across multiple neurodevelopmental domains [
8]. Children delivered very preterm (VPT; born at ≤ 32 weeks’ gestation) typically face disproportionate risk, with infants born earliest facing the highest rates of developmental disability [
9]. However, these adverse effects are not universal, with widely varied outcomes among preterm children with similar neonatal clinical phenotypes. Critically, the associated costs in caring for these children are enormous, amounting to more than $25 billion annually in the USA alone [
10].
Among preterm children, prominent neurodevelopmental difficulties are seen across motor, cognitive, language, and social-emotional domains [
11‐
14]. These areas warrant particular focus due not only to their critical functional importance, but also to their significant impact on quality of life, including poor peer relationships [
15] and academic underachievement [
16‐
18]. Over 50% of children diagnosed with cerebral palsy are born preterm, with the greatest likelihood among those born at the earliest gestational ages [
19]. An even larger proportion of preterm children experience other more subtle fine and gross motor problems, with approximately 40% displaying mild to moderate motor impairment [
12]. Similarly, 15–20% of intellectual disabilities and 10–15% of other learning disorders are attributable to preterm birth. VPT children obtain Full Scale Intelligence Quotient (IQ) scores up to 10 points lower than term children [
20,
21]. Furthermore, VPT children consistently perform worse than term-born peers on executive function tasks assessing planning, fluency, working memory, and response inhibition [
22‐
24]. Preterm children also demonstrate problems in selective, sustained, and executive attention, with up to 41% of VPT and 62% of extremely preterm (born at < 28 weeks’ gestation) children in the impaired range [
25‐
28]. Further, large effect sizes have been reported for executive shifting and divided attention [
25,
26,
29], suggesting VPT children particularly struggle with top-down control of attention processes. In addition, approximately 35% of children born between 31 and 34 weeks’ gestation demonstrate language impairments at preschool-age, with rates as high as 48% for children born at less than 30 weeks gestation [
30]. Deficits in both receptive and expressive language domains persist into school age, affecting skills such as word finding, perception, grammar, dialog, and linguistics [
30‐
34]. Critically, across each of these neurodevelopmental domains, preterm birth remains a strong risk factor for impairment even after accounting for sociodemographic risk [
19,
35].
More recently, elevated rates of social-emotional deficits and psychiatric disorders have been recognized among children born preterm, with increasing numbers of reports detailing the “preterm behavioral phenotype” [
36], comprised of inattention, anxiety, and social-communication deficits [
37]. These comorbid symptoms and the related disorders of Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety, and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are two to four times more common among preterm children [
5,
38‐
43]. As with other neurodevelopmental impairments, children born VPT are at greatest risk for these social-emotional impairments and psychiatric diagnoses [
36]. Further, studies examining the trajectory of these symptoms demonstrate their persistence into adolescence [
5,
44‐
49]. Importantly, rates of these disorders remain elevated even after accounting for the increased frequency of other neurodevelopmental disabilities, including motor and intellectual impairments [
36].