Background
Methods
Study design and population
Data collection
Demographic and socio-economic data
Dietary data
Data processing
Milk | Vegetables | Sweets |
Adult formula (fortified milk powder) | Dark green leafy vegetables | Sweet bakery products |
Cow’s milk (fluid and powdered) |
Spinach
|
Cookies
|
Other milk |
Broccoli
|
Biscuits
|
Cheese |
Cabbage, green
|
Sweet breads
|
Yoghurt |
Local leafy/petioles/salad vegetables
|
Cakes
|
Meats/Fish/other protien sources | Deep yellow vegetables | Ice cream, popsicles |
Beef |
Carrot
| Candy |
Carabeef |
Sweet potato, yellow
| Sugar |
Pork |
Cassava, yellow
| Syrup |
Goat/lamb |
Squash fruit
| Preserves/jams/jellies |
Chicken |
Squash, summer fruits
| Native desserts/snacks |
Duck | Starchy vegetables | Sugar sweetened beverages |
Sausages/hotdogs |
Sweet potato
|
Fruit-based beverages
|
Luncheon meats/cold cuts |
Potato
|
Concentrated fruit juice drinks
|
Fish | Other vegetables |
Powdered fruit flavored drinks
|
Eggs | Vegetable products/processed vegetables |
Soft drinks
|
Beans/nuts | Fruit & 100% fruit juice |
Chocolate/chocolate flavor beverages
|
Grains & Grain products | Apple |
Other sweetened beverages
|
Refined rice | Avocado | Mixed dishes |
Cereal | Banana | Meat-based mixed dishes |
Bread | Mango | Beans-based mixed dishes |
Crackers | Melon | Grain-based mixed dishes |
Pancakes, waffles, French toast | Citrus fruits | Soups |
Noodles | Cherries/berries | Other foods & beverages |
Pasta | Papaya | Non-alcoholic beverages |
Corn grits | 100% Fruit juice | Alcoholic beverages |
Cornmeal | fats/Oils | Savory snacks |
Fats | Condiments, sauces, herbs, spices, other seasonings | |
Oils |
Statistical analysis
Results
Demographic and socio-economic characteristics, and nutritional status of the study population
19–49 years | 50 years and above | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
n
| % |
n
| % | |
Total, n | 12,896 | 7853 | ||
Age (mean ± SE) | 34.4 ± 0.08 | 62.6 ± 0.1 | ||
Gender | ||||
Male | 6935 | 53.8 | 3539 | 45.1 |
Female | 5961 | 46.2 | 4314 | 54.9 |
Area of residence | ||||
Urban | 6907 | 53.6 | 4464 | 56.8 |
Rural | 5989 | 46.4 | 3389 | 43.2 |
Wealth quintiles | ||||
Poorest | 2557 | 20.3 | 1542 | 20.1 |
Poor | 2653 | 21.1 | 1638 | 21.4 |
Middle | 2594 | 20.6 | 1552 | 20.3 |
Rich | 2454 | 19.5 | 1453 | 19.0 |
Richest | 2308 | 18.4 | 1468 | 19.2 |
Marital status | ||||
Single | 4331 | 33.6 | 431 | 5.5 |
Married | 6728 | 52.2 | 5149 | 65.6 |
Live-in | 1351 | 10.5 | 327 | 4.2 |
Widow | 177 | 1.4 | 1776 | 22.6 |
Separated / divorced | 304 | 2.4 | 167 | 2.1 |
Educational attainment | ||||
No grade completed | 196 | 1.5 | 369 | 4.7 |
Elementary level | 3023 | 23.6 | 3986 | 51.0 |
High school level | 5324 | 41.5 | 2062 | 26.4 |
College level | 3386 | 26.4 | 1168 | 14.9 |
Vocational level | 887 | 6.9 | 226 | 2.9 |
Others | 17 | 0.1 | 6 | 0.1 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | ||||
≤ 18.5 (chronic energy deficiency) | 1288 | 10.4 | 1149 | 15.5 |
18.5 to 24.99 (normal) | 7652 | 61.8 | 4137 | 56.0 |
≥ 25.0 (overweight / obese) | 3432 | 27.7 | 2105 | 28.5 |
Energy and macronutrient intakes
Nutrients | 19–49 years (young adults) | 50 years and above (older adults) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Both genders | Gender | Both genders | Gender | |||
Male | Female | Male | Female | |||
Sample, n | 12,896 | 6935 | 5961 | 7853 | 3593 | 4314 |
Macronutrients | ||||||
Energy (kcal/d) | 1828 ± 6a | 2096 ± 8b | 1535 ± 6 | 1527 ± 6 | 1767 ± 7b | 1322 ± 6 |
Total fat (g/d) | 32.2 ± 0.2a | 34.7 ± 0.3b | 29.5 ± 0.2 | 21.2 ± 0.2 | 23.2 ± 0.4b | 19.6 ± 0.2 |
Saturated fat (g/d) | 14.3 ± 0.1a | 15.2 ± 0.1 NS | 13.4 ± 0.1 | 10.3 ± 0.1 | 11.0 ± 0.1 NS | 10.0 ± 0.1 |
MUFA (g/d) | 10.8 ± 0.1a | 11.6 ± 0.1b | 10.1 ± 0.1 | 7.5 ± 0.1 | 8.0 ± 0.1 NS | 7.0 ± 0.1 |
PUFA (g/d) | 5.3 ± 0.1a | 5.9 ± 0.1 NS | 4.8 ± 0.1 | 3.7 ± 0.1 | 3.9 ± 0.1b | 3.4 ± 0.1 |
Protein (g/d) | 60.1 ± 0.2a | 68.7 ± 0.3 NS | 50.7 ± 0.2 | 50.1 ± 0.2 | 58.3 ± 0.3b | 43.0 ± 0.2 |
Carbohydrates (g/d) | 322 ± 1NS | 372 ± 1b | 266 ± 1 | 273 ± 1 | 317 ± 2 NS | 237 ± 1 |
Total sugars (g/d) | 26.3 ± 0.1a | 25.0 ± 0.2 NS | 28.0 ± 0.2 | 25.7 ± 0.2 | 24.7 ± 0.2 NS | 26.5 ± 0.2 |
Dietary fiber (g/d) | 9.1 ± 0.03a | 10.1 ± 0.1b | 8.0 ± 0.04 | 8.5 ± 0.04 | 9.5 ± 0.1b | 7.6 ± 0.1 |
As percentage of total energy | ||||||
Total fat (%) | 15.1 ± 0.1a | 14.0 ± 0.5b | 16.3 ± 0.1 | 13.2 ± 0.1 | 12.4 ± 0.1 NS | 13.8 ± 0.1 |
Protein (%) | 13.3 ± 0.02a | 13.2 ± 0.04b | 13.4 ± 0.02 | 13.4 ± 0.02 | 13.5 ± 0.04b | 13.3 ± 0.03 |
Carbohydrates (%) | 71.1 ± 0.1a | 71.9 ± 0.1b | 70.3 ± 0.1 | 73.0 ± 0.1 | 73.2 ± 0.1 NS | 72.9 ± 0.1 |
Vitamins | ||||||
Thiamine (mg/d) | 0.8 ± 0.01a | 0.9 ± 0.01b | 0.7 ± 0.01 | 0.6 ± 0.03 | 0.7 ± 0.01b | 0.6 ± 0.03 |
Riboflavin (mg/d) | 0.7 ± 0.01a | 0.8 ± 0.01 NS | 0.6 ± 0.01 | 0.6 ± 0.04 | 0.6 ± 0.01b | 0.5 ± 0.03 |
Niacin (mg NE/d) | 19.5 ± 0.1a | 22.3 ± 0.1 NS | 16.4 ± 0.1 | 16.6 ± 0.1 | 19.2 ± 0.1b | 14.2 ± 0.1 |
Vitamin B6 (mg/d) | 1.6 ± 0.01a | 1.8 ± 0.01b | 1.5 ± 0.01 | 1.4 ± 0.01 | 1.5 ± 0.01b | 1.2 ± 0.01 |
Vitamin B12 (μg/d) | 4.0 ± 0.01a | 4.4 ± 0.02b | 3.5 ± 0.02 | 3.6 ± 0.02 | 4.2 ± 0.03b | 3.1 ± 0.02 |
Vitamin A (μg RE/d) | 470 ± 2a | 505 ± 3b | 433 ± 3 | 408 ± 3 | 447 ± 4b | 375 ± 3 |
Vitamin C (mg/d) | 23.4 ± 0.1a | 22.7 ± 0.2NS | 22.8 ± 0.2 | 24.1 ± 0.2 | 24.4 ± 0.3 NS | 23.8 ± 0.2 |
Vitamin E (mg α-TE/d) | 2.9 ± 0.01a | 3.2 ± 0.02b | 2.6 ± 0.02 | 2.5 ± 0.02 | 2.8 ± 0.03b | 2.3 ± 0.02 |
Vitamin D (μg/d) | 3.2 ± 0.01a | 3.5 ± 0.02b | 2.9 ± 0.02 | 3.0 ± 0.02 | 3.4 ± 0.03b | 2.7 ± 0.02 |
Folate (μg DFE/d) | 190 ± 1a | 203 ± 1b | 177 ± 1 | 182 ± 1 | 196 ± 2b | 171 ± 2 |
Minerals | ||||||
Calcium (mg/d) | 312 ± 1a | 340 ± 1b | 281 ± 1 | 308 ± 2 | 328 ± 2b | 268 ± 2 |
Iron (mg/d) | 8.8 ± 0.03a | 9.6 ± 0.04b | 7.9 ± 0.04 | 7.5 ± 0.04 | 8.2 ± 0.1b | 6.7 ± 0.04 |
Phosphorus (mg/d) | 882 ± 3a | 1012 ± 4 NS | 739 ± 3 | 750 ± 3 | 869 ± 5 NS | 647 ± 3 |
Sodium (mg/d) | 821 ± 3a | 851 ± 5b | 817 ± 5 | 727 ± 5 | 699 ± 6b | 667 ± 5 |
Zinc (mg/d) | 6.8 ± 0.1a | 7.5 ± 0.1 NS | 5.8 ± 0.1 | 5.5 ± 0.1 | 6.2 ± 0.1 NS | 4.9 ± 0.1 |
Magnesium (mg/d) | 181 ± 1a | 204 ± 1b | 155 ± 1 | 159 ± 1 | 182 ± 1b | 140 ± 1 |
Potassium (mg/d) | 1271 ± 4a | 1392 ± 5b | 1140 ± 5 | 1155 ± 5 | 1282 ± 8b | 1046 ± 6 |
Selenium (μg/d) | 103.1 ± 0.3a | 117.8 ± 0.5b | 87.3 ± 0.4 | 84.5 ± 0.4 | 97.0 ± 0.6b | 73.6 ± 0.4 |
Nutrients | 19–49 years (young adults) | 50 years and above (older adults) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Both genders | Gender | Both genders | Gender | |||
Male | Female | Male | Female | |||
Sample, n | 12,896 | 6935 | 5961 | 7853 | 3593 | 4314 |
Total fat (%) b | 55† | 62* | 48 | 67 | 72* | 63 |
Protein (%) b | 2NS | 2 NS | 2 | 3 | 3 NS | 3 |
Carbohydrates (%) b | 3 NS | 3 NS | 3 | 2 | 2 NS | 1 |
Protein (g/d) | 42† | 33* | 51 | 62 | 53* | 70 |
Thiamine (mg/d) | 73† | 68* | 81 | 89 | 86* | 92 |
Riboflavin (mg/d) | 86† | 87NS | 86 | 91 | 94 NS | 94 |
Niacin (mg NE/d) | 10† | 5* | 13 | 22 | 14* | 28 |
Vitamin A (μg RE/d) | 54† | 53* | 55 | 66 | 65* | 67 |
Vitamin C (mg/d) | 98† | 99* | 97 | 96 | 97* | 95 |
Vitamin B6 (mg/d) | 28† | 17* | 38 | 61 | 55* | 64 |
Vitamin B12 (μg/d) | 9† | 6* | 13 | 17 | 11* | 23 |
Folate (μg DFE/d) | 90† | 86* | 93 | 89 | 86* | 92 |
Iron (mg/d) | 97† | 95* | 99 | 99 | 95* | 97 |
Calcium (mg/d) | 98† | 97* | 99 | 95 | 95* | 99 |
Phosphorus (mg/d) | 14† | 6* | 24 | 30 | 16* | 42 |
Zinc (mg/d) | 14† | 15* | 10 | 34 | 34* | 27 |
Selenium (μg/d) | < 1NS | < 1NS | < 1 | 1 | 1NS | 1 |
Nutrients | 19–49 years (young adults) | 50 years and above (older adults) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wealth quintiles | Wealth quintiles | |||||||||
Poorest | Poor | Middle | Rich | Richest | Poorest | Poor | Middle | Rich | Richest | |
Sample, n | 2577 | 2653 | 2594 | 2454 | 2308 | 1542 | 1638 | 1552 | 1453 | 1468 |
Total fat (%) b | 90* | 77 | 64 | 37 | 17 | 91* | 86 | 76 | 55 | 33 |
Protein (%) b | 7* | 3 | 1 | < 1 | < 1 | 9* | 4 | 2 | < 1 | 1 |
Carbohydrates (%) b | < 1* | < 1 | < 1 | 3 | 9 | < 1* | < 1 | < 1 | 1 | 3 |
Protein (g/d) | 57* | 50 | 41 | 32 | 30 | 74* | 70 | 64 | 57 | 48 |
Thiamine (mg/d) | 86* | 81 | 75 | 66 | 60 | 91* | 91 | 89 | 85 | 80 |
Riboflavin (mg/d) | 94* | 92 | 89 | 81 | 76 | 95* | 94 | 93 | 91 | 85 |
Niacin (mg NE/d) | 22* | 15 | 8 | 4 | 5 | 36* | 29 | 19 | 17 | 12 |
Vitamin A (μg RE/d) | 56* | 68 | 59 | 50 | 46 | 70* | 74 | 72 | 70 | 62 |
Vitamin C (mg/d) | 96* | 98 | 99 | 98 | 98 | 89NS | 91 | 97 | 95 | 89 |
Vitamin B6 (mg/d) | 40* | 38 | 28 | 21 | 14 | 70* | 66 | 65 | 61 | 45 |
Vitamin B12 (μg/d) | 14* | 13 | 10 | 4 | 4 | 27* | 22 | 14 | 9 | 8 |
Folate (μg DFE/d) | 84* | 88 | 93 | 91 | 93 | 83* | 88 | 92 | 94 | 91 |
Iron (mg/d) | 99* | 98 | 98 | 96 | 95 | 97* | 95 | 95 | 93 | 87 |
Calcium (mg/d) | 98* | 98 | 98 | 98 | 96 | 95* | 94 | 95 | 96 | 97 |
Phosphorus (mg/d) | 23* | 17 | 13 | 10 | 11 | 40* | 35 | 27 | 28 | 20 |
Zinc (mg/d) | 29* | 21 | 16 | 5 | 4 | 53* | 43 | 33 | 25 | 15 |
Selenium (μg/d) | 1NS | 1 | < 1 | 0 | 0 | 4* | 2 | 1 | < 1 | 0 |
Micronutrient intakes
Consumption rate and mean consumption per capita of major food groups
19–49 years (young adults) | 50 years and above (older adults) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rank | Food groups | % of adults consuming | Mean intake (SE) per capita (g) | Rank | Food groups | % of adults consuming | Mean intake (SE) per capita (g) |
1 | Grains | 99.5 | 350.4 ± 0.6 | 1 | Grains | 99.6 | 290.8 ± 0.6 |
2 | Meat & proteins | 94.8 | 152.3 ± 0.5 | 2 | Meat & proteins | 92.7 | 117.4 ± 0.5 |
3 | Sweets | 76.9 | 102.3 ± 0.9 | 3 | Sweets | 79.2 | 63.4 ± 0.8 |
4 | Vegetables | 68.5 | 66.4 ± 0.4 | 4 | Vegetables | 68.9 | 70.1 ± 0.5 |
5 | Fats & oils | 63.1 | 6.2 ± 0.1 | 5 | Other foods & beverages | 64.6 | 25.7 ± 1.4 |
6 | Other foods & beverages | 62.7 | 35.9 ± 1.4 | 6 | Fats & oils | 57.4 | 5.1 ± 0.1 |
7 | Fruit | 21.2 | 24.4 ± 0.8 | 7 | Fruit | 24.9 | 29.7 ± 0.9 |
8 | Milk | 9.3 | 2.8 ± 0.3 | 8 | Milk | 13.4 | 3.2 ± 0.2 |
9 | Mixed dishes | 1.9 | 5.1 ± 1.5 | 9 | Mixed dishes | 2.1 | 6.0 ± 1.4 |