Introduction
Tumor microenvironment components
Macrophages
Cancer-associated fibroblasts
Neutrophils
Natural killer cells and T cells
Endothelial cells and pericytes
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells
Cytokines, chemokines and other factors
Enzymes
Extracellular matrix components
Hypoxia
Mechanisms of immune evasion in cancer and unanswered questions in cancer immunotherapy
Nanoparticles targeting tumor microenvironment components in cancer immunotherapy
Nanoparticles targeting tumor-associated macrophages
Nanoparticle | Cancer type/Cell line | Size (nm)/Zeta potential (mV) | Outcome | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
PEGylated liposomes | Breast cancer/4T1 cells Pancreatic cancer/ murine KPC1245 and KPC1242 cells | 75 nm | Delivery of mannose and levamisole hydrochloride for glycolysis suppression and reducing mitochondrial energy metabolism Suppression of cancer proliferation Combination with radiotherapy impairs M2 polarization of macrophages and increases immune responses | [260] |
Prodrug nanoparticles | Colorectal cancer/MC38 cells Breast cancer/MCF-7 cells | 39 nm/-8.23 mV 263.2 nm/less than − 5 mV | Co-delivery of doxorubicin and R848 Modification of nanoparticles with bifunctional PD-1/PD-L1 peptide antagonist PCP Cleavage of nanoparticles with FAP-α in the tumor stroma Release of cargo in the tumor site stimulates immunogenic cell death and causes macrophage reprogramming | [261] |
Lipid nanoparticles | Pancreatic cancer/KPC cells | 122.4 nm/+27.82 mV | Loading lipid nanoparticles in injectable hydrogels Delivery of CCL5-siRNA by lipid nanoparticles to induce M1 polarization of macrophages and enhance T cell-induced immune responses | [262] |
Upconversion nanostructures | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 39.5 ± 1.1 and 54.1 ± 1.3 nm/-19.7 mV and − 4.1 mV | Introduction of upconversion nanoparticles co-doped with perfluorocarbon (PFC)/chlorin e6 (Ce6) Targeted delivery of paclitaxel as a chemotherapy drug Increasing singlet oxygen production Stimulating M1 polarization of macrophage in accelerating pro-inflammatory cytokine release to impair breast cancer progression | [263] |
Iron-chelated melanin-like nanocarriers | Colon and breast cancers/ CT26 and 4T1 cells | 150 nm | Stimulating M1 polarization of macrophages and providing photothermal therapy, they accelerated tumor-associated antigen release to improve cancer immunotherapy | [264] |
Supramolecular nanoparticles | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 190.1 nm/-17.1 mV | Suppression of CSF1R and MAPK to stimulate M1 polarization of macrophages | [265] |
MIP-3β plasmid | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 90 nm/-2.1 mV | Increasing dendritic cell maturation and suppressing M2 polarization of macrophages | [266] |
Au@PG nanocarriers | Lung cancer/ Lewis lung carcinoma cells | 32.2 nm at 2.5 mM ONPG, 29.8 nm at 10 mM, 26.4 nm at 50 mM, and 18.3 nm at 75 mM | Polyaniline-based glycol-condensation on the nanostructures Switching M2 polarized macrophages into M1 polarized macrophages Nanoparticles with smaller sizes demonstrate higher efficacy in the macrophage re-education | [267] |
CaCO3-loaded Au nanostructures | Macrophages/RAW 264.7 cells | 32 nm | Elongating macrophage cell morphology Stimulation of M1 biomarker and inflammatory cytokines Inducing M2 polarization of macrophages | [268] |
Polymeric nanocarriers | Osteosarcoma/K7M2 cells | 98.4 nm/-14.3 mV | Biodegradable nanoparticles for delivery of regorafenib as vascular normalization compound Release of cargo upon laser irradiation of 808 nm and increasing hypoxia in TME Induction of the release of reactive oxygen species and mediation of immunogenic cell death Stimulation of M1 polarization of macrophages | [269] |
Gadofullerene nanocarriers | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 68.1 nm/-37.7 mV | M1 polarization of macrophages and increasing infiltration of T lymphocytes in the TME for cancer suppression | [270] |
DGL-ZA nanoparticles | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 123.1 nm/-13.4 mV | Potential cancer biodistribution, extravasation, and high tumor penetration Conjugation of dendrigraft poly-L-lysines as inducers of autophagy Macrophage regulation and increasing tumor-suppressor activity | [271] |
Phosphatidylserine-modified nanoparticles | Melanoma/B16F10 cells | 230 nm/at a range of 20–30 mV | Externalization of nanostructures occurs when they are exposed to the TME with upregulation of MMP2 Increasing depletion of tumular-associated macrophages in TME | [272] |
Hyaluronic acid-functionalized nanoparticles | Non-small cell lung cancer | 92 nm/-12 mV | Targeted delivery of miR-125b and increasing its transfection more than 6 times to induce M1 polarization and enhance iNOS levels | [273] |
Trimethyl chitosan nanoparticles | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 120–160 nm/20 mV | Functionalization with mannose and glycocholic acid Delivery of SIRPα-siRNA and MUC1 pDNA Oral delivery of cargo pMUC1 increases macrophage phagocytosis ability and M1 polarization Increasing immunity by the SIRPα-siRNA | [274] |
Nanoparticles targeting cancer-associated fibroblasts
Nanoparticles targeting T cells
Nanoparticle | Cancer type/Cell line | Size (nm)/Zeta potential (mV) | Highlights | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Polymeric nanoparticles | Lung cancer/LLC cells | 75.9 ± 0.98 nm/32.5 ± 1.5 mv | ROS-responsive nanocarriers for the co-delivery of FGL1- and PD-L1-siRNA Development of nanoparticles from poly-l-lysine-thioketal and modified cis-aconitate to facilitate endosomal escape Functionalization of nanoparticles with iRGD peptide Enhancing infiltration of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in cancer immunotherapy | [305] |
Chiral nanoparticles | Lymphoma/EG7.OVA cells | - | Stimulation of NK and CD8+ T cells | [306] |
Biomimetic nanoparticles | Colon cancer/CT26 cells | - | The phospholipid nanoparticles (PL1) can provide targeted delivery of mRNA (CD137 or OX40) in the stimulation of T cells | [307] |
Cisplatin nanoparticles | Lung cancer/LLC | 14.4 ± 3.3 nm/-12.8 mV | Enhancing CD8+ T cell priming through elevating antigen presentation and providing T cell crosstalk | [308] |
Lipid nanoparticles | Colon cancer/MC38 cells | - | Stimulation of CD8+ T cells and reprogramming TME to disrupt the proliferation of cancer cells | [309] |
Endogenous antigen-carrying nanoparticles | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | −15 ± 3.3 mV | Increasing proliferation of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and promoting the ratio of cytotoxic T cells compared to Treg cells | [310] |
Cationic polymeric nanostructures | Melanoma/B16F10 cells | 163.9 ± 0.61 nm, 523.9 ± 15 nm and 1278.3 ± 27 nm/less than 60 mV | Development of nanocarriers based on polyadmidoamine dendrimers and poly(d,l-lactic-co-glycolic acid) Development of cancer vaccine Enhancing the number of T cells in the peripheral blood | [311] |
Platelet | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | −38.0 ± 0.4 mV | Co-delivery of anti-PD-L1 antibodies and iron oxide nanoparticles as photothermal agents in cancer therapy Stimulation of necrosis through phototherapy Stimulation of innate immune responses Promoting infiltration of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells | [312] |
Bacterial membrane-coated nanoparticles | Melanoma/B78 cells | 207 nm/-11 mV | Comprised of PC7A/CpG core with immune system induction ability The presence of bacterial membrane and imide groups can increase antigen retrieval Capturing neoantigens and their presentation to dendritic cells Stimulation of T cell responses | [313] |
Photo-responsive prodrug nanoparticles | Colon cancer/CT26 cells | 88.1–119.2 nm | Delivery of VPF as photosensitizer, FRRG and doxorubicin Stimulation of immunogenic cell death ERP effect Maturation of dendritic cells for cross-presenting of antigens to T cells | [314] |
K3ZrF7:Yb/Er upconversion nanocarriers | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 20 nm | Increasing ROS levels Capase-1 upregulation Gasdermin D cleavage IL-1β maturity Cytolysis induction Increasing dendritic cell maturation and promoting number of effector-memory T cells | [315] |
Prodrug nanoparticles | Colon cancer/CT26 cells | 70 nm/-17 mV | Targeted delivery of camptothecin and assembling with PEGylated lipids Increasing half-life and blood circulation Enhancing infiltration of CD8+ T cells | [316] |
Lipid-coated calcium phosphate nanoparticles | Melanoma/B16F10 cells | 30 nm/-20 mV | Apoptosis induction Acceleration of immunosuppression Polarization of macrophages into M1 phenotype Increasing CD8+ T cells | [317] |
Nanoparticles regulating hypoxia
Nanoparticles targeting myeloid-derived suppressor cells
Nanoparticles for delivery of cargo into antigen-presenting cells and lymph nodes
Nanoparticles targeting tumor cells
Nanoparticles in immunogenic cell death: a rational way in cancer immunotherapy
Cell membrane-coated biomimetic nanostructures
Cancer cell membrane-functionalized nanoparticles
Red blood cell-functionalized nanoparticles
Platelet-functionalized nanoparticles
Macrophage membrane-functionalized nanoparticles
Vehicle | Cancer type/Cell line | Size (nm)/zeta potential (mV) | Highlights | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Biomimetic nanovesicles | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 500 nm | Loading 5-aminolevulinate hydrochloride (HAL) and 3-methyladenine (3MA) into cancer cell-derived microparticles Increasing biosynthesis of PpIX in mitochondria, causing ROS generation after irradiation and increasing mitochondrial dysfunction Suppression of mitophagy PD-L1 downregulation to mediate immunogenic cell death | [463] |
Hybrid nanoparticles | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 180 nm/−18.93 mV and − 26.4 mV | Development of hybrid nanoparticles from GTe and modification with cancer cell membrane and bacterial outer membrane GTe functions as a radiosensitizer and the membranes can increase anti-cancer immune responses Increasing ROS generation Stimulation of immunogenic cell death | [464] |
Biomimetic nanovaccine | - | - | Functionalization of nanoparticles with cancer cell membrane Co-delivery of CpG and propranolol High accumulation in lymph nodes and enough drug release Increasing dendritic cell maturation and antigen presentation Enhancing CD8+ T cell priming and Promoting infiltration of B and NK cells Inhibiting the immunosuppressive TME | [465] |
Biomimetic PLGA nanoparticles | 147.8 nm/-1.8 mV | Delivery of 2-bromo-palmitate by PLGA nanoparticles to increase its potential in breast cancer therapy Functionalization of nanoparticles with cancer cell membrane Downregulation of PD-1/PD-L1 | [466] | |
Porous silicon@Au nanocarriers | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | Up to 243.30 nm | Functionalization of nanocomposites with cancer cell membrane Stimulation of anti-cancer immune responses and relieving immunosuppressive microenvironment Suppressing the proliferation and invasion of cancers | [467] |
AIEgens | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 113.2 nm/-12.8 mV | Modification with dendritic cell-derived membrane Accumulation in lipid droplets of cancer cells The presence of cell membrane allows to accelerate hitchhiking of AIEdots into T cells and stimulates them in cancer immunotherapy | [468] |
FePSe3 nanosheets | Colon cancer/CT26 cells | + 28.5, + 24.0, + 37.8, and + 0.2 mV | Modification of nanoparticles with cancer cell membrane Loading anti-PD-1 peptide in the nanoparticles Phototherapy-induced immune responses and tumor ablation Suppression of PD-1/PD-L1 axis to stimulate T cells | [469] |
Exosomes as emerging nanostructures for cancer immunotherapy
Endogenous exosomes
Bioengineered exosomes
Exosome source | Cargo | Cancer type | Cell line | Remark | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dendritic cell | Neoantigens | Melanoma | B16F10 cells | Delivery of cargo to the lymph nodes and stimulation of T- and B-cell immune responses High biocompatibility Improving survival of animal model Suppressing proliferation and delayed tumor relapse | [489] |
Glioblastoma | LncRNA | Glioblastoma | Human glioma cell line LN229, mouse glioma cell line GL261, human microglial cell line HMC3, and mouse microglial cell line BV-2 | Stimulation of microglia to generate and secrete complement C5 in chemotherapy resistance development | [490] |
M1 macrophage | HOTTIP | Head and neck cancer | Hep-2 cells | TLR5/NF-κB overexpression to impair progression of head and neck cancer | [491] |
CD45RO- CD8+ T cell | - | Endometrial cancer | Ishikawa, RL95-2 and KLE cells | The exosomes suppress estrogen-induced endometrial cancer progression through miR-765 release | [492] |
M1 macrophage | SN38 MnO2 | Breast cancer | 4T1 cells | Cancer-targeting ability and prolonging blood circulation Stimulating M1 polarization of macrophages Increasing recruitment of NK cells | [493] |
γδ-T cells | - | Nasopharyngeal cancer | NP69, HK-1 and NPC43 cells | Elimination and killing tumor cells Stimulation of FasL and DR5/TRAIL axis Suppressing cancer growth Increasing survival of animal model Apoptosis induction Increasing migration of T cells to the tumor site through CCR5 upregulation | [494] |
- | - | Breast cancer | 4T1 cells | The smart and bioengineered exosomes with CD62L and OX40L can induce T cells and suppress Treg cell function | [495] |
Dendritic cells | - | Melanoma | B16-OVA cells | Functionalization of exosomes with anti-CD3 and anti-EGFR to bind to T cells | [496] |
iPSCs and dendritic cells exosomes | Doxorubicin | Gastric cancer | MFC cell line | Delivery of chemotherapy drug Tumor-targeting ability Recruitment of immune cells to the TME | [497] |
Cancer cells | Paclitaxel | Breast cancer | 4T1 cells | Development of liposome-exosome conjugate with high biocompatibility to increase the number of CD8+ T cells | [498] |
Cancer cells | - | Breast cancer | 4T1 cells | A combination of oxygenated water and cancer-secreted exosomes induce anti-tumor responses and suppress angiogenesis and invasion | [499] |
Cancer cells | - | Pancreatic cancer | PANC-1 cells | Exosomes reduce the levels of HLA-DR on the surface of CD14 + monocytes to cause immunosuppression through regulation of STAT3, stimulation of arginase expression and ROS | [500] |
M1 macrophages | Docetaxel | Breast cancer | 4T1 cells | The docetaxel-loaded exosomes stimulate cancer immunotherapy through M1 polarization of macrophages | [501] |
Dendritic cells | siRNA | Melanoma | B16-F10 cells | BRAF siRNA delivery by exosomes to induce T lymphocytes | [502] |
HEK 293T cell | Chlorin e6 (Ce6) and immune adjuvant R848 | Prostate cancer | RM-1 cells | The exosomes preferentially accumulate in the tumor site and induce dendritic cell maturation Increasing levels of CD80 and CD86 as biomarkers of dendritic cells Inducing M1 polarization of macrophages | [503] |
Stimuli-responsive nanostructures for cancer immunotherapy
pH-sensitive nanostructures
Nanoparticle | Cancer type/cell line | Size (nm)/zeta potential (mV) | Highlights | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
PEG/PEI/CAD nanoparticles | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | At a range of 100–250 nm/at a range of 10–20 mV | Delivery of doxorubicin and its release in a pH-sensitive manner Immunogenic cell death induction The acidity of the endosome induces cleavage of cis-aconityl Recruitment of dendritic cells | [512] |
Hollow silica nanostructures | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 100 nm/+11 mV | Increased retention in response to low pH level of TME Targeting mitochondria and increasing ROS levels Stimulation of photodynamic therapy Combination with checkpoint inhibitors mediates anti-tumor immunity | [513] |
Dextran-modified BLZ-945 nanocarriers | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 11.35, 112.4, and ∼135.6 nm | Presence of a borate ester bond as a pH-sensitive bond Immunogenic cell death induction Dendritic cell maturation, TAM depletion and T cell infiltration | [514] |
Manganese nanoparticles | Melanoma/B16-OVA cells | 130 nm | Mn2 + and 2-methylimidazole (2-MI) have been used to encapsulate ovalbumin with pH-sensitive features and the ability of dendritic cell maturation in cancer immunotherapy | [515] |
Mesoporous silica nanostructures | - | 146 nm | pH-sensitive feature and delivery of R848 Uptake of nanoparticles by antigen-presenting cells Stimulation of dendritic cells and boosting T cell-mediated immune responses | [516] |
Peptide-functionalized nanobubbles | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 173.8 nm/-1.53 mV | Functionalization of nanobubbles with anti-PD-L1 peptide Loading Ce6, metformin and perfluorohexane in nanobubbles Accumulation of nanoparticles in acidic pH causes detachment of PEG ligands and then, exposure of peptide to suppress PD-L1 Hypoxia relief by metformin and increasing potential of Ce6 in cancer therapy Increasing anti-tumor immunity and prevention of immunosuppression | [517] |
Polymer-lipid complexes | Lymphoma/E.G7-OVA cells | - | The polymer-lipid-embedded liposomes release ovalbumin in response to pH and stimulate anti-cancer immunity by releasing ovalbumin in the cytoplasm of dendritic cells | [518] |
Polymer-modified liposomes | Lymphoma/E.G7-OVA cells | 100 nm/−15.7 mV and 1.3 mV at pH 7.4 and pH 5.5 | pH-responsive feature and cationic lipid inclusion Delivery of ovalbumin Increasing cytokine generation Antigen presentation through MHC-I and MHC-II | [519] |
Liposome | Lymphoma/E.G7-OVA cells | 136, 108 and 115 nm/-0.87, -11 and − 6.1 mV | Modification of liposomes with polymer Destabilization of liposomes in pH 6 Uptake of liposomes by dendritic cells Delivery of ovalbumin to cytosol Tumor growth suppression | [520] |
Polymer-modified liposomes | Lymphoma/E.G7-OVA cells | 97, 100, 88, 110, 108 and 109 nm/-18, -19, -11, -63, -65 and − 60 mV | Inclusion of cationic lipid and CpG-DNA Inducing dendritic cells to secrete cytokines Stimulation of antigen-specific immune responses pH-sensitive feature | [521] |
Biomimetic nanoparticles | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 102.86 nm | Coating manganese nanoparticles with hybrid membranes Membrane is developed from mesenchymal stem cell membrane and pH-sensitive liposomes Targeted delivery of BPTES Inducing STNG pathway and M1 polarization of macrophages Relief of immunosuppression TME | [522] |
Polysaccharide-based polymers | Lymphoma/E.G7-OVA cells | 157 nm/-50 mV | Stimulation of dendritic cells Cytoplasmic delivery of antigen Th1 cytokine production by dendritic cells | [523] |
Liposomes | Melanoma/B16-OVA cells | 401, 754, 636 and 674 nm | pH-sensitive liposomes deliver STING and TLR9 agonist Increasing Th1 immune responses in tumor suppression | [524] |
Redox-sensitive nanoparticles
Photo-responsive nanoparticles and phototherapy
Nanoparticle | Cancer type/Cell line | Size (nm)/zeta potential (mV) | Outcome | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Nano-PROTACs | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 40 and 80 nm/ | The nanoparticles have been comprised of PpIX as photosensitizer and SHP2-targeting PROTAC peptide (aPRO) The stimulation of aPRO occurs as a response to upregulation of caspase-3 Targeted degradation of SHP2 through ubiquitin-proteasome system SHP2 depletion suppresses immunosuppressive pathways, including CD47/SIRPα and PD-1/PD-L1, to improve anti-cancer functions of macrophages and T cells | [542] |
MRC nanoparticles | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 38.69 ± 0.20 | Co-delivery of RGX-104 as an immune agonist and chlorin e6 Stimulation of ApoE by RGX-104 to impair the function of MDSCs and accelerate pyroptosis Chlorin e6-induced PDT to facilitate oxidative damage and enhance immunogenicity | [543] |
Ru(II)-modified TiO2 nanocarriers | 4NQO-Oral cancer | 40 nm/ −7.41 ± 1.22 and + 27.65 ± 2.46 mV | Loading HIF-1α-siRNA in nanoparticles Stimulation of PDT and inducing lysosomal damage Downregulation of HIF-1α and enhancing killing of oral cancer Stimulation of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells | [544] |
PDA-FA nanoparticles | Colon cancer/CT26 cells | 130 nm/-14.29 mV | Delivery of CpG as immunomodulatory to induce dendritic cell maturation and increase T cell activity Suppressing Treg cells and MDSCs PTT induction | [545] |
Copper sulphide nanoplatforms | Melanoma/B16F10 cells | 28 nm/30.5 mV | Delivery of Cas9 ribonucleoprotein to target PTPN2 Downregulation of PTPN2 to increase infiltration of CD8+ T cells Increasing levels of IFN-γ and TNF-α Improving immune-sensitivity | [546] |
Polymer nanoadjuvants | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 40 nm/-31 mV | Doping with TLR agonist as an immunomodulatory adjuvant Presence of lipid shell response to temperature The PTT potential in response to NIR-II Immunogenic cell death induction and release of TLR agonist Upregulation of TLR7/TLR8 and stimulation of immunogenic cell death enhance dendritic cell maturation and amplification of anti-cancer immune responses | [547] |
Nanoenzymes | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 100 nm | Cu-doped MoOx (CMO) nanozyme comprises the core that is coated with cancer cell membrane Increasing the tumor accumulation and nanozymes causes oxidative damage through increasing ROS generation PTT causes immunogenic cell death to activate the immune system | [548] |
Gold nanorod | Colon cancer/CT26 cells | 66.48 ± 1.41, 76.73 ± 4.6, 93.72 ± 2.7, and 116.8 ± 6.5 nm/26 mV | The 808 nm laser irradiation causes PTT Stimulation of immune cells in the lymph nodes | [549] |
AIE | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 110.3 nm/+10.68 mV | Modification with cancer cell membrane Stimulation of immunogenic cell death Increasing ROS generation through PDT | [550] |
Polymer nanoagonist | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 42 and 50 nm/-19.9 mV | Stimulation of PTT Increasing immunotherapy and induction of immunogenic cell death | [551] |
Antigen-capturing nanoparticles | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 41.1 nm | Stimulation of phototherapy under NIR irradiation Increasing antigen uptake and presentation Suppressing cancer progression | [552] |
Black phosphorus quantum dot nanovesicles | Breast cancer/4T1 cells | 120 nm/-23 mV | Loading them into thermosensitive hydrogels NIR irradiation increases dendritic cell activation and then, they migrate into lymph nodes for the stimulation of CD8+ T cells | [553] |
Gold nanocages | Colon cancer/CT26 cells | 52 ± 3 nm/ -24 ± 2 mV | Delivery of anti-PD-L1 and galunisertib by nanocages Stimulation of PTT to cause immunotherapy | [554] |
Nanoparticle | Phase | Remark | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
RNA-lipoplexes | Phase I | Increasing maturation of dendritic cells and increasing T cell response | [558] |
miR-34a-loaded liposomes | Phase I | Reduction in the expression of immune evasion genes | [559] |
miR-4157-loaded lipids | Phase I | Stimulation of neoantigen-specific T cells and increasing anti-cancer immune responses | [560] |
Iron oxide nanostructures | Not applicable | Increasing M1 polarization of macrophages from M2 phenotype | [256] |
Paclitaxel-loaded lipid core nanostructures | Phase II | Enhancing dendritic cell maturation | |
Doxorubicin-loaded anti-EGFR immunoliposomes | Phase II | Stimulation of immunogenic cell death Suppressing EGFR-induced growth signaling | NCT02833766 |
Plasmid DNA complex-loaded cationic liposomes | Phase I | Stimulation of the immune system | NCT00860522 |
Combination of anti-PD-1 and hafnium oxide nanostructures | Phase I | Increase in tumor cell death, promotion of immunogenic cell death, and induction of the immune system | NCT03589339 [563] |
Nanoparticles | Benefits | Challenges |
---|---|---|
Polymeric nanoparticles | • Targeted delivery of cargo to improve the therapeutic index and reduce the systemic side effects • Prolonged release of drugs • Potential in the delivery of various cargoes including small molecule drugs, proteins, peptides, and nucleic acids • Increased stability of drugs and preventing degradation • Stimulation of the immune system • Biocompatibility and biodegradability | • The development of nanoparticles with desirable size, charge, and targeting capacity is challenging • Strict rules regarding clinical application • Unexpected interactions with the immune system • Challenges in the scale-up generation, storage and stability |
Lipid nanoparticles | • Efficient delivery of genetic tools including mRNA, siRNA, and DNA • Targeted delivery • Protection of cargo • Long-term biocompatibility and safety • Adjuvant impact that a number of lipid components can function as adjuvants and increase anti-cancer immune responses | • Complex manufacturer production, especially the development of nanoparticles for gene delivery • They require ultra-low temperatures to preserve their stability • Immunogenicity that can lead to inflammation and other side effects • Low loading capacity |
Metal nanoparticles | • Targeted delivery of drugs and high loading and encapsulation efficiencies • Application for photothermal therapy, since a number of nanostructures such as gold nanocarriers can absorb light and cause photothermal-mediated tumor ablation • Delivery of immunomodulatory agents for cancer immunotherapy • Synergistic therapy through a combination of drug delivery and photothermal therapy • Imaging and biosensing | • The biodistribution of metal nanostructures is challenging along with their clearance from the body • The metal nanostructures possess high cytotoxicity and poor biocompatibility • The chance of inflammation and immune reactions • Stability and toxicity towards normal cells |
Carbon nanoparticles | • High drug-loading potential for the delivery of drugs, proteins, and genetic tools • Application in photothermal and photodynamic therapy • Imaging and biosensing of cancer biomarkers | • The toxicity and poor biocompatibility • The changes in the biodegradation of carbon nanoparticles, leading to their long-term accumulation • Complexity in the generation of nanoparticles at a large scale and achieving the desirable physicochemical properties including size, zeta potential and others • Heterogeneous biological functions among the various classes of carbon nanomaterials including tubes, dots and sheets |