Introduction
Methods
Study design and setting
Data analysis
Results
Variables | Smokers (n =69) | Non-smokers (n = 23) |
p-value
‡
| ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | ||
Age (years)
| 34.7 | 6.8 | 33.9 | 7.5 |
0.6
|
BMI
*
| 30.4 | 8.8 | 31.6 | 10.4 |
0.6
|
BMI
*
category
†
|
N
|
%
|
N
|
%
| |
Normal weight (<25.0 kg/m2) | 20 | 36.4 | 7 | 38.9 | |
Overweight (25–29.9 kg/m2) | 10 | 18.2 | 4 | 22.2 | |
Obese (≥30.0 kg/m2) | 25 | 45.5 | 7 | 38.9 |
0.7
|
Marital status
| |||||
Single | 23 | 33.3 | 13 | 56.5 | |
Married or common law | 45 | 66.7 | 9 | 43.5 |
1.0
|
Education
| |||||
None/some junior high school | 19 | 27.5 | 2 | 8.7 | |
Junior HS or HS completed | 31 | 44.9 | 12 | 52.2 | |
College, trade school or university | 18 | 27.6 | 9 | 39.1 |
0.4
|
Number of people with income in household
| |||||
0 | 15 | 21.7 | 6 | 20.1 | |
1 | 30 | 43.5 | 7 | 30.4 | |
2 | 17 | 24.6 | 7 | 30.4 | |
3 or more | 7 | 7.3 | 3 | 13.1 |
0.9
|
Number of self employed people in household
| |||||
0 | 53 | 79.8 | 19 | 82.6 | |
1 | 14 | 20.3 | 4 | 17.4 | |
2 | 2 | 2.9 | 0 | 0 |
0.4
|
Nutrients | Smokers | Non-Smokers | Smokers | Non-smokers | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | P-value | % below AMDR†
| P-value | AMDR†
| ||
Energy (kJ) | 15664.9 | 7723.7 | 14673.3 | 6962.2 | 0.66 | 21.7 | 15.9 | 0.50 | 7536 |
% energy carbohydrate | 48.7 | 12.7 | 45.3 | 12.8 | 0.29 | 30.4 | 34.8 | 0.80 | 45-65 |
% energy from fat | 27.1 | 6.8 | 28.2 | 7.6 | 0.35 | 17.4 | 17.4 | 1.00 | 20-35 |
% energy protein | 15.3 | 5.9 | 15.5 | 5.5 | 0.72 | 15.9 | 21.7 | 0.50 | 10-35 |
Mean
|
SD
|
Mean
|
SD
|
P-value
|
% below EAR
*
|
P-value
|
EAR
*
| ||
Carbohydrate (g) | 436.0 | 218.0 | 384.0 | 237.0 | 0.17 | - | - | - | - |
Fat (g) | 110.0 | 59.0 | 104.0 | 53.0 | 0.87 | - | - | - | - |
Protein (g) | 140.0 | 80.0 | 130.0 | 67.0 | 0.78 | - | - | - | - |
Sugar (g) | 237.0 | 130.0 | 202.0 | 186.0 | 0.08 | - | - | - | - |
Fibre (g)‡
| 22.7 | 14.7 | 22.4 | 10.9 | 0.84 | 65.2 | 69.6 | 0.80 | 25.0‡
|
Poly-unsaturated fat (g) | 17.1 | 11.3 | 16.3 | 8.1 | 1.0 | - | - | - | - |
Omega 3 (g) | 1.8 | 1.1 | 1.7 | 1.0 | 0.9 | - | - | - | - |
Omega 6 (g) | 16.7 | 14.6 | 16.4 | 8.4 | 0.36 | - | - | - | - |
Cholesterol (mg) | 460.0 | 237.0 | 426.0 | 242.0 | 0.4 | - | - | - | ALAP§
|
Alcohol | 67.1 | 128.3 | 75.5 | 145.0 | 0.79 | - | - | - | - |
% energy from alcohol | 9.3 | 14.8 | 11.5 | 19.7 | 0.85 | - | - | - | - |
Vitamin BI (mg) | 2.6 | 1.4 | 2.8 | 2.4 | 0.79 | 4.4 | 4.4 | 1.00 | 0.9 |
Vitamin B2 (mg) | 4.4 | 2.1 | 4.4 | 3.1 | 0.35 | 69.0 | 23.0 | 0.44 | 0.9 |
Vitamin B3 (mg) | 39.1 | 20.8 | 41.4 | 32.9 | 0.81 | 1.5 | 4.4 | - | 11.0 |
Vitamin B5 (mg)‡
| 10.8 | 5.4 | 9.2 | 4.8 | 0.24 | 21.7 | 7.3 | 0.11 | 53.0‡
|
Vitamin B6 (mg) | 2.9 | 1.7 | 3.3 | 3.2 | 0.91 | 5.8 | 17.4 | 0.10 | 1.1 |
Vitamin B-12 (μg) | 14.2 | 10.4 | 16.8 | 13.6 | 0.65 | 0 | 1.5 | 1.00 | 2.0 |
Folate (μg)
||
| 469.0 | 249.0 | 417.0 | 154.0 | 0.48 | 30.4 | 39.1 | 0.45 | 320.0 |
Vitamin C (mg) | 261.0 | 214.0 | 219.0 | 279.0 | 0.15 | 10.1 | 17.4 | 0.45 | 60.0 |
Vitamin A (RAE) (μg) ∞
| 421.0 | 324.0 | 418.0 | 330.0 | 0.97 | 26.1 | 30.4 | 0.79 | 500.0 |
Vitamin D (μg)
|
| 275.0 | 259.0 | 232.0 | 183.0 | 0.34 | 76.8 | 73.9 | 0.78 | 10.0 |
Vitamin E (mg) ¶
| 3.2 | 6.6 | 3.2 | 2.6 | 0.13 | 97.1 | 100.0 | 1.00 | 12.0 |
Magnesium (g)‡
| 394.0 | 173.0 | 358.0 | 148.0 | 0.32 | 23.2 | 34.8 | 0.28 | 265.0‡
|
Potassium (g)‡
| 4.3 | 1.9 | 3.8 | 1.6 | 0.31 | 63.8 | 69.6 | 0.8 | 4.7‡
|
Sodium (mg)‡
| 5.12 | 2.9 | 5.06 | 2.9 | 0.92 | 4.4 | 4.4 | 1.00 | 1.5‡
|
Iron (mg) | 26.4 | 16.2 | 23.0 | 12.3 | 0.54 | 7.3 | 4.4 | 1.00 | 8.1 |
Calcium (mg) | 1442.4 | 921.6 | 1295.6 | 743.9 | 0.44 | 39.1 | 23.2 | 0.20 | 800.0 |
Selenium (μg) | 177.0 | 107.0 | 146.0 | 74.1 | 0.31 | 4.4 | 0.0 | 0.57 | 45.0 |
Zinc (mg) | 20.0 | 11.2 | 18.1 | 10.0 | 0.53 | 5.8 | 13.0 | 0.17 | 6.8 |
Nutrients | Smokers (n = 69) | Non-smokers (n = 23) |
p value
| ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Median | Mean | SD | Median | Mean |
SD
| ||
Carbohydrate (g) | 122 | 124 | 32 | 113 | 122 | 32 |
0.29
|
Fat (g) | 30.1 | 31 | 7.5 | 31.3 | 33.1 | 8.4 |
0.35
|
Protein (g) | 38.3 | 37.4 | 14.8 | 38.6 | 35.8 | 13.8 |
0.71
|
Sugar (g) | 67.6 | 63.9 | 29.5 | 55.7 | 49.7 | 26.7 |
0.05
|
Fiber (g) | 6.2 | 5.9 | 2.7 | 7.3 | 6.6 | 3.4 |
0.18
|
Saturated fat (g) | 10.2 | 10.1 | 2.9 | 10.5 | 11.5 | 3.1 |
0.39
|
Monounsaturated fat (g) | 10.9 | 11.2 | 2.9 | 11.4 | 11.9 | 3.2 |
0.38
|
Polyunsaturated fat (g) | 4.64 | 4.41 | 1.69 | 4.88 | 5.08 | 1.4 |
0.27
|
Omega-3 (g) | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.3 |
0.87
|
Omega-6 (g) | 4.4 | 4.1 | 2.3 | 4.9 | 1.5 | 4.9 |
0.08
|
Cholesterol (mg) | 132 | 131 | 55 | 124 | 117.6 | 45 |
0.68
|
Vitamin B1 (mg) | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.4 |
0.32
|
VitaminB2 (mg) | 1.3 | 1.2 | 0.9 | 1.3 | 1.2 | 0.6 |
0.98
|
Vitamin B3 (mg) | 11 | 10.3 | 3.9 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.4 |
0.41
|
Vitamin B5 (mg) | 3.4 | 2.9 | 2.8 | 3 | 3 | 1.5 |
0.47
|
Vitamin B6 (mg) | 0.1 | 0.8 | 0 | 0.9 | 0.9 | 0.4 |
0.17
|
Vitamin B12 (μg) | 3.8 | 3.4 | 2.1 | 4.6 | 4.1 | 2.8 |
0.4
|
Folate (μg)*
| 137.1 | 134.5 | 67.9 | 138.9 | 140.3 | 60.9 |
0.82
|
Vitamin C (mg) | 71 | 60.2 | 49.8 | 39.2 | 43.7 | 56.6 |
0.16
|
Vitamin A (RAE) (μg)∞
| 240 | 222 | 116 | 221 | 207 | 96 |
0.7
|
Vitamin D (μg)†
| 76.9 | 63.1 | 68 | 68.8 | 56.9 | 47 |
0.49
|
Vitamin E (mg)‡
| 1.4 | 1.3 | 0.6 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 0.5 |
0.63
|
Magnesium (g) | 116.2 | 110.5 | 59.7 | 113.7 | 113 | 43.9 |
0.81
|
Potassium (mg) | 1271 | 1200 | 808 | 1200 | 1257 | 475 |
0.94
|
Sodium (mg) | 1417 | 1411 | 497 | 1558 | 1374 | 783 |
0.87
|
Iron (mg) | 7.2 | 6.5 | 3 | 6.9 | 6.9 | 2.7 |
0.96
|
Calcium (mg) | 404 | 351 | 169 | 381 | 383 | 126 |
0.9
|
Selenium (μg) | 52.5 | 44.5 | 36.9 | 45.2 | 38.7 | 19.3 |
0.6
|
Zinc (mg) | 5.6 | 5.3 | 2.3 | 5.3 | 5.2 | 1.8 |
0.82
|
Smoking status | Nutrients inadequacy OR (95% CI) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vitamin A | Vitamin D | Vitamin C | Calcium | Iron | Zinc | |
Non-smokers | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Smokers | 1.41 (0.58-3.42) | 1.00 (0.42-2.44) | 2.91 (1.17-5.25) | 2.36 (0.77-1.35) | 3.16 (1.27-5.90) | 2.78 (1.12-4.94) |