Background
Natural food substances have the potential to alter biological functions of cellular and molecular components’ mechanisms by either enhancing the endogenous antioxidant system or through altering the redox signalling status of the cell [
1]. This could be beneficial in pathological conditions where oxidative stress and inflammation play an important role. Previous studies have shown that rooibos and red palm oil (RPO) protected the heart against the detrimental effects of ischaemia/reperfusion injury when supplemented individually to rats [
2]–[
7]. Experimental evidence has also shown that RPO has potential anti-hypertensive and hypoglycaemic properties [
8]. Recent evidence showed that RPO alone or in combination with rooibos can alleviate oxidant-induced hepatotoxicity in male rats [
9].
Red palm oil is a product from the fruits of the oil palm tree, Elaeis guineensis (Family Arecaceae) which has been shown to have protective effects against hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerotic plaque formation, despite being high in saturated fatty acids [
10],[
11]. In addition to the various fatty acids that RPO contains, it is also a rich source of a wide spectrum of different lipid soluble antioxidants such as tocopherols, tocotrienols, carotenoids, lycopene and co-enzyme Q10, among others [
12]–[
14]. The health benefits of RPO have been attributed to its unique composition of fatty acids and a high content of natural antioxidants [
15],[
13]. RPO is one of the richest sources of natural vitamin E, especially tocotrienols [
16]. Vitamin E has been shown to regulate specific cell signalling pathways independent of its antioxidant properties, therefore some of its beneficial effects have been attributed to its ability to modulate signal transduction pathways [
17],[
18]. There is also credible evidence showing that palm oil vitamin E have potential anti-inflammatory properties [
19]–[
22].
Rooibos is a uniquely South African herbal tea made from the leaves and stems of the shrub-like leguminous bush, Aspalathus linearis (Brum.f) Dahlg (Fabaceae, Tribe Crotalarieae). It’s flavonoids are unique in that it contains the C-C linked dihydrochalcone glucoside, aspalathin which is oxidized to the flavanones dihydro-iso-orientin and dihydro-orientin during fermentation, the cyclic dihydrochalcone, aspalalinin, the rare 3-dehydroxy dihydrochalcone glucoside, nothofagin, the C-glycosyl flavones orientin, isoorientin, vitexin, isovitexin, and the flavones hemiphlorin and chrysoeriol, luteolin and luteolin-7-O-glucoside and flavonols quercetin and its O-linked glycosides quercetin-3-robinobioside, hyperoside, isoquercitrin and rutin [
23]–[
25]. The health effects of rooibos have been proposed to be mostly attributed to the unique polyphenolic composition and its related antioxidant activities [
26]–[
30]. Animal and recent human studies have shown that consumption of rooibos or its phenolic components had positive effects on cardiovascular health and inflammation [
31]–[
38]. Studies have shown that rooibos may have potential preventive and therapeutic effects against vascular complications in diabetic rats [
39]. Aspalathin, the main and unique polyphenol in rooibos, has been shown to positively modulate glucose homeostasis in type 2 diabetes [
30], while the antioxidant activity of rooibos has also been linked to its potential anti-inflammatory and DNA protective effects in a rat colitis model [
33].
RPO (fat soluble) and rooibos (water soluble) contain different types of antioxidants which reside and exert their biological effects in different cellular compartments [
12],[
13],[
24],[
40]. Therefore, it is tempting to speculate that supplementation with a combination of these two natural food compounds can enhance the spectrum of available dietary antioxidants in different cellular compartments and hence offer a better protection against certain pathological conditions such as inflammation. Accumulating scientific evidence shows that inflammation is the underlying pathological cause for most chronic diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, cancer and rheumatoid arthritis [
41]–[
45]. Ischaemic heart disease is the commonest form of cardiovascular disease leading to increased morbidity and mortality [
46]. The majority of heart attacks and strokes are caused by rupturing of the atherosclerotic plaque in the arterial wall and the tendency of clot formation, which results from plaque rupture [
46],[
42]. It is now a scientifically accepted fact that inflammation in the lining of the artery is the triggering factor in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis [
42]. It is becoming increasingly evident that the use of non-toxic dietary supplements either alone or in combination with pharmacological agents could present an effective strategy in treatment and prevention of the onset of acute and chronic inflammatory diseases [
47]–[
50]. In this respect, Haines and co-workers [
47] reported that the combination of different phytonutrients provided a more profound anti-inflammatory effect than individual components acting independently. In another study it has been shown that whole tart cherry extract and specific anthrocyanins contained in the tart cherry exhibited synergistic anti-inflammatory effects with lipitor in reducing LPS-IL-6 induced secretion from adipose stem cells [
49]. Dietary intervention with a Jerte Valley cherry-based beverage which is a rich source of anthocyanin pigments and other phenolic compounds has been shown to modulate the balance between the levels of pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines in young and old ringdoves by down-regulating the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and up-regulating the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines [
48].
Administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to animals is widely used to study responses to in vivo-induced acute systemic inflammation [
51],[
52]. The inflammatory response forms part of the host innate immune response, which represents the first line of defense against invading pathogens or to injury [
53]. The cytokine system forms an integral part of the initial response to microbial agents. Cytokines are also important pathophysiological mediators of cardiovascular pathologies such as atherosclerosis and systemic sepsis-induced cardiac dysfunction [
54],[
55]. The isolated rat heart model and the LPS-induced inflammatory model were used to determine if rooibos and RPO supplementation could protect against the negative effect of LPS-induced inflammation on baseline cardiac function.
Materials and methods
Animals received humane care in accordance with the Principle of Laboratory Animal Care of the National Society of Medical Research and the Guide for the care and use of Laboratory animals of the National Academy of Sciences (National Institutes of Health Publications no. 80–23, revised 1978). The rats had free access to water or rooibos and rat chow. They were individually caged in an experimental animal facility at a constant room temperature of 27°C and exposed to a twelve-hour artificial day-night cycle. The ethical clearance for this study was granted by the Faculty of Health and Wellness Science’s Research Ethics Committee of the Cape Peninsula University of Technology: Ethics Certificate No (CPUT/HW-REC 2010/A004).
Experimental model
Male Wistar rats weighing 150–200 g were randomly divided into 8 groups and supplemented with fermented/traditional rooibos, red palm oil (RPO) or their combination for 28 days. The four groups were further subdivided into two groups, either receiving 1) No-LPS or 2) LPS injection. Group 1 which is the NO-LPS group consisted of the control group receiving standard rat chow and water, rooibos group receiving standard rat chow and rooibos, RPO group receiving standard rat chow supplemented with RPO 0.2 mL (7 g/kg diet) daily and water. The RPO concentrate was supplied by Carotino SND BHD (Company no. 69046-T) Malaysia. The composition of RPO consumed by the rats is shown in (Table
1).
Table 1
Composition of Carotino RPO premium consumed by the rats
Fatty acids% | 0.1 max | 0.058 |
Moisture and impurities,% | 0.1 max | 0.03 |
Iodine Value | 48-53 | 51.2 |
Slip melting point, c | 33-37 | 36.4 |
Carotenes, ppm | 400 min | 420 |
Tocopherols and Tocotrienols, ppm | 400 min | 860 |
Nutritional information | | |
Amt/serving | Qty per 14 g | Qty per 100 g |
Energy | 518 kJ | 3700 kJ |
Protein | 0.0 g | 0.0 g |
Fat, total | 14 g | 100 g |
saturated | 7.0 g | 50.0 g |
Trans | 0.0 g | 0.0 g |
polyunsaturated | 1.5 g | 11.0 g |
monounsaturated | 5.5 g | 39.0 g |
Cholesterol | 0.0 g | 0.0 g |
Carbohydrates | 0.0 g | 0.0 g |
sugars | 0.0 g | 0.0 g |
Sodium | 0.0 g | 0.0 mg |
Carotenes as Vitamin A activity | 640 ug | 4600 ug |
Vitamin E | 2.5 mg | 18.0 mg |
Tocopherols | 1.7 mg | 12.0 mg |
Tocotrienols | 4.8 mg | 34.0 mg |
The rooibos + RPO group received a combination of rooibos and RPO (without LPS treatment). Group 2 which is the LPS group consisted of the control group receiving standard rat chow and water, rooibos group receiving standard rat chow and rooibos, RPO group receiving standard rat chow supplemented with RPO 0.2 mL (equivalent to 7 g/kg diet) daily and rooibos + RPO group receiving the combination of rooibos and RPO (with LPS treatment). Superior grade fermented rooibos was provided by Rooibos Ltd (Clanwilliam, South Africa). The rooibos aqueous extract was prepared by the addition of 100 ml of freshly boiled water to 10 g of tea leaves, filtered and stored at −40°C, and diluted 5 times, a concentration customarily used for tea consumption purposes, before being given to the rats [
56]. Phenolic content, antioxidant capacity and flavonoids composition of the rooibos consumed by the animals are as analyzed by Ajuwon et al. [
9]. The animals were given 100 ml of the freshly diluted rooibos every second day. The rooibos and water consumption was monitored throughout the feeding period and there were no statistical differences observed in either rooibos or water consumption among the experimental groups (data not shown). At the end of the feeding period (28 days), 18 hours prior to sacrificing, animals in the LPS group were injected (intraperitoneal) with lipopolysaccharide (Escherichia coli serotype) to induce inflammation. The LPS was dissolved in sterile filtered phosphate buffered saline (PBS) to obtain 0.5 mg/kg body weight in 0.1 ml [
51]. The animals in the NO-LPS were injected (intraperitoneal) with 0.1 ml of PBS (Table
2).
Table 2
Study design illustrating the experimental groups and study protocol
Feeding time | 28 days | 28 days | 28 days | 28 days | 28 days | 28 days | 28 days | 28 days |
Treatment | PBS | PBS | PBS | PBS | LPS | LPS | LPS | LPS |
| *Heart excision and perfusion protocol | *Heart excision and perfusion protocol |
At the end of the feeding period and inflammation injection protocol, rats were fasted for 16 hours before sacrificed and anaesthetized with an intraperitoneal injection of 2 mg/kg intraval sodium (sodium pentobarbital). Blood was collected from the abdominal aorta (approximately 5–8 ml) and placed into plain tubes for cytokine analysis. Serum was then separated immediately by centrifuging at 5000 g for 5 min at 4°C, the samples were then stored at −80°C till analysis were performed. Hearts were rapidly excised and placed in ice-cold Krebs-Henseleit buffer and transferred to the Langendorff perfusion system. Hearts were perfused with a Krebs-Henseleit buffer equilibrated with 95% O2 and 5% CO2 at 37°C (118.5 mM NaCl; 4.75 mM KCl; 1.2 mM MgCl 6 H2O; 1.36 mM CaCl2; 25.0 mM NaHCO3; 1.2 mM KH2PO4; 11.0 mM glucose) and a perfusion pressure of 100cmH2O was maintained throughout the protocol. Hearts were mounted to the Langendorff system and perfused for 15 minutes. Coronary flow, heart rate, LVDevP, RPP, ±dp/dt max derivatives, EDLVP were documented at baseline phase. LVDevP was measured with the aid of a balloon made from transparent sandwich wrap film inserted into the left ventricle through the opening of the left atrium. The balloon was connected to a power lab system (AD Instruments Pty Ltd., Castle Hill, Australia). After insertion, the balloon was inflated to 2 mmHg, and the contraction force of the heart against the balloon caused water displacement that was converted to pressure. The systolic and diastolic pressures as well as the heart rate and minimum and maximum derivatives were documented on the computer. At the end of the perfusion protocol hearts were removed from the system and stored at −80°C till biochemical analysis were performed.
Immunoassay for plasma and myocardial cytokine analysis
Analyses of samples were performed on undiluted myocardial tissue homogenates which were originally prepared in phosphate buffer at a dilution of 1:4. In order to analyze the myocardial cytokines, hearts from all the 8 groups were freeze-clamped with Wollenberger clamp pre-cooled in liquid nitrogen. The heart samples were then grinded into powder and 100 mg of heart tissue powder was diluted with 500 μl of phosphate buffer. The mixture was homogenized by ultrasonic homogenizer at maximum power (2×20 sec), and the homogenate was centrifuged at 4°C for 20 minutes at 5000 g. The supernatant was collected and stored at −80°C till analyses were carried out. Protein tissue content was determined using Bradford technique [
57]. Plasma and myocardial IL-1 beta, IL-6 and IL-10 levels were measured using the Bio-Plex bead array system (Bio Rad Laboratories, USA). Assays were carried out in 96-well filter plates, while the rat cytokine kits, (Cat#: RCYTO-80 K) were obtained from Millipore (USA). Samples were evaluated in duplicate. All levels of analytes in quality control reagents included in the kits were within the expected references ranges.
Data analysis
Results were expressed as mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM). Differences between the NO-LPS control group and the LPS control group were determined using an unpaired Student’s t-test. To compare differences in multiple groups, ANOVA followed by FisherLSD post hoc test was used. P < 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant difference.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors’ contributions
EKT: Was involved in all experiments, acquisition and analysis of data and played a significant role in writing and editing of the manuscript. MJL: Made substantial contributions to conception and designing of the study, also played an important role in editing of the manuscript. ORA: Made substantial role in experimental work and data analysis. He was also involved in the editing of the manuscript. CNN: Contributed significantly in analysis of the cytokine analysis and their interpretation. GS: substantial contribution in drafting and editing the manuscript and also helped with the study design. PF: Made substantial contribution in study design and planning as well as interpretation of data. CT: Made substantial contribution in study design and planning as well as interpretation of data. CC: Made substantial contribution in study planning, data analysis and interpretation of data. JVR: Made substantial contributions in conception and design of the study, and interpretation of data, also played an important role in editing the manuscript. All Authors read and approved the manuscript.